Latin  Grammar 


FOUNDED   ON   COMPARATIVE   GRAMMAR 


BY 


J.  H.  ALLEN  AND  J.  B.  GREENOUGH 


REVISED    EDITION 


BOSTON 

PUBLISHED   BY   GINN,  HEATH,  &   CO 
1884 


22)nCA!PI0IT  IiIBB< 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1877,  by 

J.   H.   ALLEN  AND  J.  B.   GREENOUGH, 
in  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


0^^ 


Prtss  of  Berwick  &»  Smith,  rrS  Purchase  StrMt. 

Al2(l  to  Lib. 


PREFACE  EAm-Cj^ 

TO   THE   REVISED   EDITION.     ^  VCMl^^i^M 


The  editors  have  taken  advantage  of  the  re-casting  of  the 
plates  to  make  some  improvements  in  the  present  edition, 
which  have  grown  upon  their  hands,  until  in  fact  a  thorough 
revision  of  the  book  has  been  made. 

The  principal  changes  are  the  following:  i.  The  matter 
of  each  part  has  been  cast  in  chapters,  with  sub-divisions  by 
numbered  paragraphs,  the  former  sections  being  indicated  in 
the  margin.  2.  A  very  considerable  expansion  has  been 
given  to  several  portions,  especially  to  those  on  Phonetic 
Changes  and  the  Formation  of  Words  ;  inflectional  forms 
have  been  more  fully  exhibited,  and  sections  have  been  added 
on  the  syntax  of  Pronouns  and  Particles.  3.  Strictly  philo- 
logical matter,  not  intended  for  class  use,  has  been  put  in  the 
form  of  marginal  notes.  4.  The  several  topics  of  the  Syntax 
are  introduced  by  brief  prefatory  notes,  suggesting  what  we 
consider  to  be  the  true  theor)^  of  the  constructions  :  these  are 
not  designed  for  class  use,  and  are  not  included  in  the  num- 
bered sections.  5.  Some  important  additions  and  illustrations 
have  been  given  in  the  Prosody.  The  substance  of  the  book 
remains  as  before.  The  form  of  expression,  however,  has 
been  carefully  revised  ;  and  a  few  sections  have  been  trans- 
ferred to  a  different  connection. 

121 


iv  Preface, 

The  proof-sheets  have  been  submitted  to  several  experi- 
enced teachers,  who  have  generously  aided  us  by  their 
criticism,  and  have  contributed  many  valuable  practicable 
suggestions.  The  editors  have  pleasure  in  acknowledging  also 
their  special  indebtedness  to  Professor  Caskie  Harrison,  of 
the  University  of  the  South,  Sewanee,  Tennessee,  whose 
correspondence  has  made  a  very  full  running  commentary  ex- 
tending over  the  greater  portion  of  the  book,  including  all  the 
Syntax,  with  copious  discussion  of  numerous  incidental  topics. 
His  notes  have  been  of  the  greatest  service  to  them  ;  have 
sometimes  modified  their  views  and  constantly  supplemented 
them,  have  urged  important  points  upon  their  attention,  and 
have  not  seldom  suggested  valuable  improvements  through 
the  very  antagonism  of  opposing  doctrine.  Material  less  easy 
to  specify  in  detail,  but  not  less  valuable  or  welcome,  has 
been  received  from  Professor  M.  W.  Humphreys,  of  Nash- 
ville, from  the  Principals  of  the  academies  at  Andover, 
Exeter,  and  Quincy,  and  from  others,  to  whom  cordial  thanks 
are  due  for  the  interest  they  have  testified  in  the  work. 

Cambridge,  September  25,  1877. 


NOTE. 


For  the  convenience  of  those  who  may  wish  to  follow  out 
special  lines  of  study  in  general  or  comparative  grammar,  or  to 
consult  original  sources  on  the  history  and  development  of  the 
Latin,  a  list  of  works  including  the  best  and  most  recent  author- 
ities is  here  subjoined  :  — 

BoPP  :    Vergleichende  Grammatik  des  Satiskrit,  etc.     [Indo-European  lan- 
guages].    4  vols.     3d  Ed.     Berlin,  186S-70. 

The  original  standard  work  on  Comparative  Forms.  Later  researches  have  cor- 
rected some  erroneous  details.  English  translation  (poor),  London  :  1862.  The 
best  form  is  a  French  translation,  with  Notes  and  Introductions  by  Michel  Breal. 
Paris:   1866. 

CoRSSEN  :  Atcssprache,  Vokalismus  und  Bctoimngder  Lateitiischen  Sprache, 

2  vols.     2d  ed.     Leipzig,  1868. 

The  greatest  work  on  Latin  alo?ie,  treating  the  language  in  reference  to  its  own 
individual  development,  particularly  as  to  the  sounds  (Z-(7;('/'/6'//r^).  In  the  com- 
parative portion,  it  needs  the  correction  of  other  investigators. 

CuRTius,  G. :  Grwidzuge  der  Griechischen  Etyi7iologie.   3d  Ed.     Leipsic  : 
1869. 

Treats  of  Latin  only  by  comparison  ;  but  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  works  on 
the  general  subject. 

Erldntertingen  zii  meiner  Griechischen  Schid-grammatik.     2d  Ed. 

Prag.  1870.     English  translation  ("  Elucidations  "),  London  :   1870. 

Notes  giving  in  connection  with  the  Greek  Grammar  the  simplest  view  of  the 
doctrine  of  forms. 


Das  Griechische  Verbum. 


Delbrijck  :  Das  Conjimctiv  und  Optativ,  im  Sanskrit  und  Griechischen. 

Halle  :   1871. 

Origin  of  the  Moods  treated  scientifically ;  should  be  read  in  connection  with  a 
notice  in  N.  A.  Review,  Oct.  1871,  and  "Analysis  of  the  Latin  Subjunctive,"  bv 
J.  B.  Greenough,  Cambridge,  1870. 


Ablativ,Localis,  Instrumentalis  im  indischen^  etc.     Berlin  :  1867. 


Origin  of  the  various  Ablative  constructions. 

Ellis,  A.  J. :  Practical  Hints  on  the  Quantitative  Pronicnciation  of  Latin. 
London  (MacMillan)  :  1874. 

Ferrar  :  Comparative  Grammar  of  Sanskrit,  Greek,  and  Latin.    London  5 
1869.     Vol.  L,  including  as  far  as  Pronouns.     The  work  was  left  un. 
finished  at  the  author's  death. 
A  convenient  hand-book  in  English. 

FiCK  :    Vergleichendes  Wdrterbuch  der  Lndo-  Germanischen  Sprachen.    Got- 

tingen  :   1870. 

A  Dictionary  of    Roots  and  Words  supposed   to  have  existed  in  the    Indo- 
European  tongue,  with  the  corresponding  words  and  derivatives  in  the  various  Ian- 


vi  Note. 

giiages.     It  can  be  used  without  a  knowledge  of  German.    No  such  book,  however, 
IS  safe  to  use  without  careful  itudy  of  the  laws  of  consonant  and  vowel  changes. 

Hadley,  James  :  Essays,  Philological  and  Critical.     New  York  (Holt  & 
Williams):  1873. 

Hoffman  :    Die  Construction  der  Lateiniscken  Zeitpartikdn.     Vienna  > 
i860  (Pamphlet). 

KUHN  :  See  Zeitschrift. 

LUBBERT :  Die  Syntax  von  Quom.     Breslau  :  1870. 

Neue  :  Formenlehre  der  Lateiniscken  Sprache.     2d  Ed.     Stuttgart:   1866. 
Storehouse  of  all  Latin  forms,  1200  pages,  containing  the  result  of  late  text- 
ual criticism.     The  standard  work. 

Papillon  :  A  Manual  of  Comparative  Philology,  as  applied  to  the  II lustra- 
tion  of  Greek  and  Latin  Injlections.     Oxford  ;   1876. 
Behind  the  time,  but  a  convenient  synopsis  of  the  doctrine  of  Forms. 

Peile  :  Latin  and  Greek  Etymology.     2d  Ed.     Macmillan  :  London  and 
Cambridge,  1872. 

—  Philology  (pp.  164).     New  York  (Appleton):  1877. 

One  of  the  series  of  the  *'  Literature  Primers  "  edited  by  J.R.  Green.  A  very 
useful  manual  to  those  desiring  a  general  acquaintance  with  the  subject. 

ROBY  :  A   Grammar  of  the  Latin  Language ,  froyn   Flautus  to  Suetonius. 

Macmillan:    London  and  New  York  :  Vol.  L  1871  ;  Vol.  IL  1873. 

A  thorough  treatment  of  Latin  Etymology  on  the  principles  of  comparative 
grammar.     Some  errors  have  been  pointed  out  in  the  N.  A.  Review,  Jan.  1S72. 

Schleicher  :   Compendium  der  Vergleichenden  Grammatik  der  Indo-Ger- 
manischen  Sprachen.     2d  Ed.  Weimar,  1866. 

ScHWEiZER-SiDLER :     Elementar-    und    Formenlehre    der    Lateiniscken 

Sprache,  fiir  Schulen.     Halle:   1869. 

The  best  summary  of  the  results  of  comparative  grammar  as  applied  to  Latin 
in  short  compass  (137  pages). 

Vanicek  :  Etymologisches  Worterbuck  der  Lateiniscken  Sprache.    Leipzig; 
1874. 
Suggestive,  but  to  be  used  with  caution. 

Westphal  :  Metrik  der  Griechen.     2d  Ed.     1867.     2  vols. 

The  great  authority  on  the  metrical  systems  of  the  ancients,  with  full  literary  and 
musical  illustration.  A  convenient  summary,  with  sonic  modifications,  will  be  found 
in  Schmidt's  Riiythmik  und  Metrik,  now  translated  by  Prof.  J.  W.  White,  and 
published  by  the  publishers  of  this  book. 

Williams  :    A  Practical  Grammar  of  the  Sanskrit  Language.     3d  Ed. 

Oxford  :  1864. 

A  very  convenient  Sanskrit  grammar,  without  some  knowledge  of  which  it  is 
difficult  to  pursue  the  study  of  comparative  grammar  to  advantage. 

Zeitschrift  fiir  vergleichende  Sprachforschung    Edited  by  Dr.  A.  KuHN. 

Vols.  L  to  XXV.     Berlin,  1851-1S76,  and  "still  continued. 

The  best  essays  on  all  disputed  points  of  comparative  Philologv.  Indispensable 
to  correct  theories  of  individual  investigators.  Each  volume  h.is  an  index  ;  and 
there  is  also  a  general  index  to  the  first  ten  volumes. 


CONTENTS. 


PART   I. —ETYMOLOGY. 

PAGE 

Chapter  I.  —  Letters  and  Sounds i-8 

Alphabet;  Classification,  Phonetic  Changes i-6 

Pronunciation  ;  Quantity  and  Accent T,^ 

Chapter  II. —  Words  ajid  their  Forms 9-13 

Inflection  ;  Root  and  Stem 9 

The  Parts  of  Speech ' .     10 

Gender;  Number  and  Case 11 

Chapter  III.  —  Declension  of  Nouns 14-36 

General  Rules  of  Declension 14 

First  Declension 15 

Second  Declension 16 

Third  Declension  :  Mute  Stems 19 

Liquid  Stems 20 

Vowel  Stems 21 

Greek  Forms 25 

Rules  of  Gender ..26 

Fourth  Declension 30 

Fifth  Declension 32 

Defective  and  Variable  Nouns 33 

Proper  Names 36 

Chapter   IV.  —  Adjectives 37-49 

First  and  Second  Declensions 37 

Third  Declension 39 

Comparison 43 

Numerals 46 

Chapter  Y.  —  Pro?touns 50-57 

Personal,  Reflexive,  Demonstrative 50 

Relative,  Interrogative,  Indefinite 54 

Correlatives  (Pronouns  and  Adverbs) 5^ 


viii  Contents. 

PAG< 

Chapter  VI.  —  Verbs 58-96 

Structure :  Voice,  Mood,  Tense 58 

Personal  Endings 63 

Forms :  Verb-Endings 65 

Esse  and  its  Compounds 67 

Regular  Verb  :  The  Three  Stems 70 

The  Four  Conjugations 71 

Formation  of  the  Stems 72 

First  Conjugation 76 

Second  Conjugation 80 

Third  Conjugation 82 

Fourth  Conjugation 86 

Deponent  Verbs » 88 

Irregular  Verbs 90 

Defective  Verbs 93 

Impersonal  Verbs 95 

Chapter  WW.  —Particles 97-106 

Adverbs 97 

Prepositions loo 

Conjunctions 103 

Chapter  VIII.  —  Formation  of  Words 107-116 

Roots  and  Stems  ;  Primary  Suffixes 107 

Significant  Endings:  Nouns,  Adjectives 109 

Derivation  of  Verbs 113 

Compound  Words 115 

PART   II.  — SYNTAX. 

Introductory  Note 117 

Chapter  I. —  The  Sentence 119-144 

Definitions  :  Subject  and  Predicate 119 

Agreement :  the  Four  Concords 122 

Nouns:  Apposition;   Predicate  Agreement      ....  123 

Adjectives  :  Rule  of  Agreement 124 

Special  Uses 126 

Pronouns  :  Personal  and  Demonstrative 129 

Reflexive 131 

Possessive 132 

Relative 133 

Indefinite 136 


Contents.  ix 


PAGE 


Verbs  :  Subject-Nominative 138 

Particles  :  Adverbs,  Conjunctions,  Negative  ....  140 

Questions 142 

Chapter  II.  —  Construction  of  Cases 145-183 

Introductory  Note 145 

I               Genitive  :  With  Nouns,  Subjective c     .  146 

I                                                             Partitive 148 

Objective 150 

With  Adjectives 151 

With  Verbs  of  Accusing,  &c.;  of  Memory  .  152 

Verbs  of  Feeling ;  Impersonals      •     •     •     •  153 

Dative:  Indirect  Object .     ..........  154 

With  Intransitives 156 

With  Compounds 158 

Of  Possession  ;  of  Agency 160 

Of  Service  ;  of  Fitness  and  Nearness    ...  161 

Of  Reference 162 

^               Accusative  :  Direct  Object 164 

I                           Cognate  Accusative ;  Two  Accusatives  .     ...  165 

Idiomatic  and  Special  Uses      .......  166 

Vocative 167 

Ablative  :  its  Several  Uses 167 

1.  Of  Separation  and  Privation 168 

Source,  Material,  Cause 170 

Of  Agency;  of  Comparison       ....       171,  172 

2.  Of  Instrument,  Means,  Accompaniment     .     .     .  173 

Of  Quality,  Price,  Specification.     .     .     .       174,  175 

3.  Locative:  Special  Uses 175 

Ablative  Absolute 176 

Time  and  Place 177 

Use  of  Prepositions 181 

[         Chapter  III.  —  Syntax  of  the  Verb 184 

Note  on  the  Moods 184 

Moods  :  Indicative 185 

Subjunctive  :  General  Use 186 

„              Hortatory 187 

„              Optative 188 

„             Dubitative 189 

Imperative 190 

Infinitive 191 


Contents, 


PAGB 


Tenses  :  Introductory  Note 194 

Tenses  of  Continued  Action 195 

Tenses  of  Completed  Action        198 

Sequence  of  Tenses 200 

Tenses  of  the  Infinitive 202 

Participles  :  Distinctions  of  Tense 204 

Adjective  and  Predicate  Use     ....  205 

Future  Participle  ;  Gerundive   ....  207 

Gerund  and  Gerundive 209 

Supines 212 

Chapter   IV.  —  Conditional  Sentences 214-226 

Introductory  Note 214 

Protasis  and  Apodosis,  215  ;  Classification  of  Forms      .  216 

Simple  Conditions :  Future  Conditions 217 

Conditions  Contrary  to  Fact 219 

General  Conditions 221 

Implied  Conditions 222 

Use  of  Conditional  Particles 224 

Chapter  V.  —  Dependent  Constructions 227-257 

Relative  Clauses  :  Introductory  Note 227 

Clauses  of  Protasis 227 

Clauses  of  Purpose 228 

Clauses  of  Result 230 

Clauses  of  Characteristic 332 

Cause  or  Reason 233 

Relations  of  Time 234 

Substantive  Clauses  :  Introductory  Note    ....  238 

Infinitive  Clauses 239 

Clauses  with  ut :   Purpose 240 

Result 242 

Clauses  with  quod 244 

Indirect  Questions 245 

Indirect  Discourse  :  Introductory  Note 247 

Narrative  :   Main  Clause 248 

Conditions,  Questions,  Commands 250 

Intermediate  Clauses 251 

Synopsis  of  Constructions 254 

General  Rules  of  Syntax 256 


Contents,  xi 


PAGE 


Chapter  VI.  —  Arratigement 258-262 

Normal  Order 258 

Emphasis 259 

Special  Rules 260 

Structure  of  the  Period 261 

PART   III.  — PROSODY. 

Chapter  I.  —  Quantity 263-270 

Introductory  Note 263 

General  Rules  of  Quantity 264 

Quantity  of  Final  Syllables 265 

Quantity  of  Penultimates 267 

Chapter  II. — Rhythm 271-275 

Measures  of  Rhythm  :   Feet 272 

The  Musical  Accent 274 

Chapter  ill. —  Versification 276-291 

The  Verse 276 

Dactylic  Verse  :  Hexatneter 277 

Elegiac  Stanza 279 

Iambic  Verse :     Trimeter 280 

Trochaic  Verse 282 

Mixed  Measures 283 

Logaoedic  Verse 284 

Metres  of  Horace 287 

Miscellaneous 291 

Early  Prosody 292 

Miscellaneous  :  Reckoning  of  Time 294 

Measures  of  Value 296 

Abbreviations 297 

Glossary  of  Terms 298 

Appendix  :  Latin  and  Kindred  Tongues 301 

Principal  Roman  Writers 3°^ 

Index 307 


PART    FIRST. 


FORMS     OF    WORDS     (ETYMOLOGY). 


Chapter  I.  —  Letters  and  Sounds, 

Alphabet. 

Note.  —  The  Latin  Alphabet,  as  usually  written,  is  the  same 
as  the  English,  except  that  it  has  no  W.  It  consists,  strictly,  of 
but  twenty-three  letters,  J  and  V  being  used  as  the  conso)iant 
forms  of  I  and  U  (see  4,  below^).  Cicero  (N.  D.  ii.  37)  reckons 
only  twenty-one  letters;  Y  and  Z  being  added  after  his  time,  in 
words  derived  from  the  Greek. 

Clasriifiication  of  the  lietterg. 

1.  The  Vowels  {litterce  vocales)  are  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y. 
The  combinations  ae  (.e),  au,  ei,  eu,  oe  (ce),  ui,  are 
called  Diphthongs.  In  early  Latin,  ai,  01,  and  ou  are 
also  found  as  diphthongs. 

Note.  —  The  primitive  vowel-sound  may  be  assumed  to  be  A,  as  in  father. 
Starting  with  this,  and  gradually  contracting  the  palate^  we  form  in  succession  the 
sound  of  E  (a)  and  l  {ee),  leading  to  the  semi-vowel  j  {y).  By  contracting  the 
lips^  we  in  like  manner  form  the  sound  of  o  and  u  {00),  leading  to  the  semi- 
vowel V  (w).  By  contracting  both  palate  and  lips,  we  form  the  French  sound 
of  w,  —  in  Greek  v,  and  in  Latin  Y.  This,  which  is  called  the  Vowel-Scale, 
is  of  great  service  in  tracing  the  modifications  of  vowel-sounds.  It  may  b« 
represented  thus  :  — 

Open  A 

Medial  E  O 

Close         I  Y  U 

The  Aspirate  (or  breathing)  n  follows  in  inflection  the  rule  of  palatals ;  and 
vras  originally,  in  many  words,  a  harsh  guttural  (kh),  like  the  Greek  x  or  the 
Spanish  j.  Its  later  sound  was  very  slight,  and  in  most  languages  derived 
from  Latin  has  quite  disappeared.  Sometimes,  as  in  aheneus  {=aeneus),  it 
seems  to  be  used  by  modern  copyists  only  to  separate  two  vowels. 

'  The  references  are  to  the  numbered  paragraphs. 


2  Etymology  :  Letters  and  Sounds, 

1/  2.  Consonants  {litterce  consonantes)  are  classified 
according  to  the  organ  of  speech  with  which  they  are 
spoken,  as  Labial  (lip).  Lingual  {tongue),  or  Palatal 
{palate)  ;  and  according  to  the  mode  of  utterance,  as 
Surd,  Sonant,  or  Nasal :  thus  — 


SURD.  SONANT. 

P  B 

T  D 

C,  K,  Q  G 

3.  The  letters  b,  c,  d,  g,  k,  p, 


NASAL. 

M 

N 

N  adulterinum} 


(  Labial 
Consonants  \  Lingual 
{^Palatal 

Q,  T  (surds  and  sonants),  are 
called  Mutes ;  l,  m,  n,  r,  are  called  Liquids  ;  f,  ph,  th,  h,  s 
(surd),  and  v,  z  (sonant),  are  Fricatives  (Spirants),  s  and  z  being 
also  Sibilants ;  X  (cs)  and  z  (ds  or  sd)  are  Double  Consonants. 

4.  The  letters  i  (j)  and  u  (v)  may  be  used  before  a  vowel 
in  the  same  syllable,  as  in  iuuenis  {Jjivenis),  and  are  then 
consonants  (sometimes  called  semi-vowels).  The  u  in  quis^ 
anguis,  sttavis,  &c.,  forms  a  compound  sound  with  the  preceding 
letter,  and  is  strictly  neither  vowel  nor  consonant. 

5.  Vowels  and  Consonants  are  not  separated  by  any  sharp  line 
from  each  other,  but  form  a  continuous  scale  from  the  most  open 
vowel  to  the  closest  mute,  as  in  the  following  Table. ^  The  ten- 
dency of  phonetic  change  has  been  from  the  extremes  of  open 
vowel  and  close  mute  towards  the  fricatives  and  semi-vowels  in 
the  middle. 

A  {ah) 
^{hat)  ^{aw) 
e  {eh)  o 

i  {ee)  n  {but)         u  {oo) 

y  (Eng.)  r,  1  w 


Sonant. 


ng 


Surd,    h 

Sonant. 

Surd. 

Sonant 

Sonant. 

Surd. 


kh 
gh 


r,l 
n 
s 
z 

th 
dh 
d 
t 

LINGUAL. 


Vowels. 


Semivowels- 

m     Nasals. 

f )  Fricatives 

V  I  {Spirants). 

ph  I  Aspirates 

bh  J  (lost  in  Latin). 

b. 

Mutes. 


P 
LABIAL. 


'  Before  a  Palatal,  as  in  ink,  thing.  "  Adapted  from  Professor  VV.  D. 

Whitney's  Oritntal  and  Unguistic  Studies,  ad  Series,  page  rJ;6. 


Early  Forms ;  Phonetic  Changes.  3 

Early  Forms. 

6.  In  early  use,  c  was  not  distinguished  in  form  or  sound 
from  G.  After  the  distinction  was  made,  C  was  still  used  con- 
ventionally, as  the  initial  of  names  {Caius,  Cnaeus)  beginning 
properly  with  G.  It  came,  in  later  use,  to  take  the  place  of 
K,  which  was  retained  only  in  abbreviations,  or  as  the  initial 
letter  of  a  few  words,  as  Kalendae,  Karthago,  in  which  it 
precedes  a. 

7.  Till  after  the  age  of  Augustus,  u  was  never  in  good  use 
preceded  in  the  same  syllable  by  u  or  v  ;  but  o  was  written 
where  later  custom  allows  u  :  as  in  volty  servos^  quom  (for  cuni) 
and  quor  (for  cur\  or  c  was  regularly  used  for  QU  in  such  words 
as  cum  (for  quu?n),  ecus  (for  equus),  relicus  (for  reliquus),  locmt- 
tur  (for  loquuntur),  and  the  like  ;  also  in  cotidie  (for  quotidte), 
and  a  few  other  words. 

8.  At  the  end  of  a  few  words,  —  as  sed,  apud,  illud,  —  T  was 
anciently  written  instead  of  d.  In  words  ending  in  -s,  final  s  was 
often  elided  (sometimes  with  further  change),  as  in  qualist 
{qualis  est)^  plenu^  fidei  (Cat.  Maj.  §  i). 

Phonetic  Changes. 

9.  Letters  are  often  changed  according  to  general 
laws  of  inflection  and  derivation ;  or  have  been  altered 
through  long  use,  securing  an  easier  utterance  {phonetic 
decay,  euphonic  change).     Thus, 

10.  Vowels  are  changed  by  — 

a.  Vowel-increase  :  as,  emo,  emi ;  l^go,  legi ;  ago,  egij  pendo, 
pondus;  sono,  persona;  perftdus,  ftdtis,  foedusj  due-is,  duco 
(compare  tell,  told ;  fell,  fall ;  bind,  band,  bound') . 

b.  Substitution,  generally  following  the  vowel-scale  (see  page  i) 
in  the  direction  from  A  to  i  on  one  side,  or  to  u  on  the  other,  but 
sometimes  across  from  o  to  e  :  as,  factum,  confectumj  agmen, 
agminis ;  capio,  incipio j  cano,  concino ;  lego,  colligoj  salio,  ex- 
sulto  J  pello,  pulsu7ttj  servos,  servus  j  eboris,  ebur;  vorto,  verto. 

c.  Contraction  or  omission  :  as,  obit  (obiit),  cogo  {co-ago),  nil 
{nihil),  debeo  {de-hdbeo),  coetus  {coitus);  —  audacter  {audaciter)  ; 
jurgium  {jurigium),  disciplina  {discipulina). 

d.  Suppression  of  the  semi-vowel  (sometimes  with  contrac- 
tion) :  as,  obicit  (objicit),  cuttctus  {co-June tus,  i.  e.  conjunctus), 
contio  {conventio),  rursus  {reversus),  amarat  {amaverat). 


4  Etymology:  Letters  and  Sounds, 

11.  Consonant  changes  are  made  by  — 

a.  Substitution :  as  of  R  for  s  between  two  Vowels,  and 
before  m  or  n  :  as,  in  eram  (root  es),  generis  {genus),  maereo 
(fnaestus),  dirimo  {dis-emd),  diribeo  {dis-habeo),  veternus  {yetus- 
nus)  ;  —  or  s  for  d  or  T,  a  smoother  combination :  as,  cas?is 
{cad-tus\  cessum  {ced-ium\  mansus  {?nan-tus),  passjis  {pat-tus), 
missus  {rnit-tus),  equester  {equet-ter). 

b.  Omission:  exa?nen  {exagmen)^  caetnentum  {caed-inentujn\ 
semestris  {ses-mestris) ,  lana  (Juc-nd),  deni  {dec-ni),  hoc  (abl.  for 
hod-ce),  autumnus  {auctumjius  :  root  A.VG)  ^  fulmen  {fulg-men)y 
pergo  {per-rego),  lis  (st/is),  cor  {cord-),  lac  {lad-),  pes  {peds). 

c.  Insertion :  as,  sumo,  surnpsi,  sumptum  {sum-si,  sum-turn)  ; 
hiems,  hiemps  (a  transition  sound,  as  in  Thompson), 

d.  Transposition:  as,  sterno,  stravi{STAR);  sperno^  sprevi; 
cerno,  crevij  misceo,  mixtus  {misc-tus). 

e.  Dissimilation  (to  avoid  repetition  of  a  sound) :  as,  parilia 
(from  Pales) ;  meridies  {medi-dies). 

f.  Assimilation  — 

1.  Partial  :  as,  scriptus  {scrib-tus),  actus  {ag-tus),  auxi  {aug-si), 
i?npero  {in-pero),  contero  {com-tero),  segmentum  {sec-mentum), 
quantus  {quam-tus). 

2.  Complete :  as,  cessi  {ced-si),  stimmus  {sujhmus),  sella 
{sed-la),  puella  {puer{u)la),  pressi  {pr em-si). 

3.  Especially  of  the  final  consonant  of  the  preposition  in 
Compounds  :  as,  accedo  {ad-cedo),  officio  {ad-facio),  occurro  {ob- 
curro),  corruo  {com-ruo),  effero  {ec-fero),  suppono  {sub-pono). 

Note.  —  The  rules  for  this  assimilation  may  be  given  as  follows  :  ad  is 
assimilated  before  c,  g,  /,  / ;  less  regularly  before  /,  r,  s,  and  rarely  before  m  ; 
while  before/,  «,  g,  the  form  ad  is  to  be  preferred ;  —  ab  is  not  assimilated,  but 
may  take  the  form  a,  au,  or  abs  ;  —  in  com  (con,  co),  m  is  retained  before  b, /,  m  ; 
is  assimilated  before  /,  n,  r;  is  changed  to  n  before  c,  d,f,g,  j,  q,  s,  v ;  some- 
times becomes  n  before/;  is  sometimes  assimilated  (otherwise  n)  before /and  r; 
com  loses  the  final  m  in  conecto,  coniveo,  conitor,  conubium  ;  —  in  usually  changes 
n  to  tn  before  b,  m,  /»;  before  /  the  better  orthography  retains  n  ; — ob  and  sun 
are  assimilated  before  c,f,  g,  /,  and  sometimes  before  m  ;  su»  also  before  r  ;  and, 
in  early  I^tin,  b  of  these  prepositions  sometimes  becomes  /  before  s  or  /.  The 
inseparable  amb  loses*  before  a  consonant,  and  m  is  sometimes  assimilated;  — 
ciRCUM  loses  m  before  /  (often) ;  —  J  of  dis  before  a  vowel  becomes  r,  and  before 
a  consonant  is  lost  or  assimilated  ;  —  the  d  of  red  and  sed  is  generally  lost 
before  a  consonant.  In  most  of  these  cases  the  later  editions  pref«r  the  unaltered 
forms  throughout ;  but  the  changes  given  above  have  good  authority.  Others, 
which  are  corruptions  of  the  middle  ages  (as  a^sum  for  adsutti),  would  better 
be  avoided.     Lexicon.^  vary  in  the  spellinc  «»f  tliese  comhinations. 


Phonetic  Changes;  Combinations.  5 

12.  Variations  of  spelling  occur  as  follows  :  — 

a.  Interchange  of  ci  and  Ti  before  a  vowel :  as,  nuntio^  nuncio  j 
contio,  concio J  dicio^  ditto;  condicio,  conditio;  susplcio^  suspftio. 
In  these  cases,  the  former  is  the  more  approved  spelHng,  though 
the  latter  may  still  be  frequently  found. 

Note.  —  The  substitution  of  c  for  t  (or  the  converse)  is  an  example  of  phonetic 
decay,  and  belongs  to  a  later  period  of  the  language.  In  Italian,  z,  and  in 
Spanish,  c,  has  regularly  taken  the  place  of  t  in  such  combinations  :  as  in  nazione, 
nacion.  The  sound  of  s  or  of  sh  traceable  in  them  led  gradually  to  the  adoption 
of  this  as  the  regular  sound  of  c  before  e  or  /  {assibilation). 

b.  Several  words  are  written  sometimes  with  and  sometimes 
without  an  initial  H  :  as,  arena  or  harena,  erus  or  herus,  umerus 
or  humerus^  umor  or  hUmor.  The  combinations  PH,  TH,  are  found 
only  in  words  taken  from  the  Greek. 

c.  Many  words  are  variously  spelled  in  different  editions  :  as, 
adotescens,  adulescens ;  anulus,  annultis ;  caelum^  coelum  ;  epistola^ 
epistula ;  femina^  foemina ;  litera,  littera;  milia^  inillia;  nequi- 
quam,  nequicquam,  nequidquam ;  paulus^  paullus ;  qiiicqitam, 
quidqjiam;  umquam,  unquam;  verto,  vorto ;  volnus,  vulnus ; 
also  the  gerund-forms  -endus  or  -iindus,  and  the  superlative  -imus 
or  -umus.     The  old  form  lubet  is  often  used  for  libet^ 

Combinations. 

13.  Two  words  are  often  united  in  writing,  and 
sometimes  in  sound.     Thus  — 

a.  Conjunctions  or  other  particles  are  connected  :  as  in  etenim^ 
jamdiu^  siquisy  siquidem;  also  a  few  short  phrases  :  as,  quare, 
quamobrem,  respublica,  jusjurandum,  paterfamilias. 

b.  The  verb  est,  is^  is  joined  with  the  preceding  word,  espe- 
cially in  the  old  poets,  or  when  the  two  would  be  united  by 
elision :  as,  homost,  periculumst,  ausust  (like  thou'rt,  Pve). 

c.  Similar  contractions  are  found  in  vin^  {visne)^  scin^  (scisne), 
sis  (si  vis),  sodes  {si  audes).     So  in  English,  don't,  wonH.^ 

'  Many  of  the  above  variations  are  due  to  the  practice  of  writing  from  dictation, 
or  by  the  ear,  by  which  most  MS.  copies  of  the  classics  were  made,  —  a  single 
reader  often  dictating  to  numerous  copyists,  whose  spelling  was  often  corrupt, 
and  without  authority.  The  tendency  of  the  more  approved  editions  is  to  restorq 
the  forms  of  the  late  Republic  or  early  Empire  (the  time  of  Cicero  or  Augustus), 
so  far  as  this  can  be  determined  by  inscriptions,  &c.  The  choice  among  the 
forms  appears  often  to  be  arbitrary.  *  Old  English,  woll  not. 


/ 


Etymology :  Letters  and  Sounds. 

SyUables. 

14.  In  the  division  of  syllables,  a  single  consonant 
between  two  vowels  is  to  be  written  with  the  latter. 

a.  This  rule  is  sometimes  extended  to  double  consonants,  or 
any  combination  of  consonants  which  can  be  used  to  begin  a 
word  :  as,  ho-spes,  ma-gnus^  di-xit. 

b.  In  compounds,  the  parts  should  be  separated:  as,  ab-est^ 
ob-latus. 

c.  A  syllable  preceded  by  a  vowel  in  the  same  word  is  called 
pure,  ^s, pi-US ;  when  preceded  by  a  consonant,  impure,  as  constat. 

d.  An  initial  syllable  ending,  or  any  other  syllable  beginning, 
with  a  vowel,  is  called  openj  otherwise,  it  is  called  close. 

Kindred  Forms. 

15.  In  English  words  derived  from  the  Latin,  the  original 
letters  are  retained  (as  ambition  from  ambitio)?-  But  in  true 
English  words  which  come  from  the  same  source  as  the  Latin 
(see  Appendix),  the  original  letters  are  rarely  represented  by 
the  same  but  usually  by  closely  related  letters,  which  regularly 
correspond.  Sometimes  a  consonant  lost  in  the  Latin  appears 
in  the  English  word.     Thus  — 

LATIN  ENGLISH 

c,  k,qu       H,  WH  :   qui,  who;  cos,  hone;  carpo,  harvest;  calo 
(kalendae),  hail ;  cord-,  heart. 

g  K,  CH  :  genus,  kin;  genu,  knee ;  gusto,  choose. 

t  TH  :  tu,  thou;  tres,  three ;  tenuis,  thin. 

T  or  D  (rarely) :  stare,  stand \  torreo,  dry, 

d  T :  duo,  two;  dens,  tooth;  sedeo,  sit. 

p  f:  ^2^.tT,  father;  ^nWns^foal;  pauci,/lf«/. 

f  (for  bh)  B  :  fero,  bear;  frater,  brother. 

f  (for  dh)  D  :  fores  {Bvpa),  doors;  fera  (^^p),  deer, 

h  G :  veho,  wagon;  hortus,  garden;  hostis,  guest 

i  (j)  ;  u  (v)       Y  ;  w:  ]ug\im, yoke ;  ovis,  ewe. 

Lost  :  (s)niv-,  snow;  (h)an8er,  goose;  (s)nervo-,  snare. 
Sounds  of  the  Letters. 

Note.  —  The  pronunciation  of  Latin  is  different  in  different 
countries.  Among  us,  it  usually  follows  one  of  tvro  ways,  which 
may  be  called  the  Roman  (or  Phonetic)  and  the  English. 

'  Many  words,  however,  coming  through  the  French  follow  French  changes  :  as, 
fashion,  fa^on  {/actio) ;  chivalry^  cluval  icabaUutf  \  chimney,  cheminie  {eaminutx 


Pronunciation,  7 

/  /" 

^  16.  By  the  Roman  (or  Phonetic)  method,  every  letter 

has  always  the  same  sojmd,  as  follows  :  — 

Vowels  :  a  as  in  father;  a  as  in  idea. 

e  as  eh  ?  (prolonged) ;  they  j    e  as  eh  ?  (clipped). 
i  as  in  machine  j  I  as  in  holiest. 

6  as  in  holy ;  6  as  in  obey. 

u  as  00  in  boot ;  ii  as  ^^  in  foot. 

N.B.  —  Vowels  marked  thus,  a,  e,  i,  6,  u,  are  longj  marked 
thus,  a,  e,  X,  6,  u,  are  short. 

A  long  syllable  is  reckoned  equal  to  two  short  ones. 
Diphthongs  :  ae  like  ay^;  oe  like  oy  j  au  like  ow  in  now. 

ei  as  in  eight;  eu  as  ew^j  ui  as  we  (pdee).  ' 

Consonants  :  c  and  g  are  always  hard,  as  in  come,  get. 
s  is  always  sharp,  as  in  sea,  lips. 
j  is  like  jy  v  like  «/ ;  qu  as  in  English. 
bs  is  WkQps;  ch  like  k;  ph  like/I 

Note.  —  In  the  ancient  pronunciation,  ph  was  distinguished  from  f  by 
being  sounded  with  the  lips  only,  instead  of  lip  and  teeth.  In  many  words  (as 
abietis,  temiis),  I  and  u  sometimes  had  the  consonant  sound,  though  usually 
in  such  words  reckoned  as  vowels.  The  diphthong  ae  was  anciently  sounded  as 
above,  but  early  in  the  time  of  the  Empire  acquired  from  popular  or  provincial 
use  the  long  sound  of  E.  When  two  consonants  come  together  (as  in  condo, 
magmcs),  or  a  consonant  is  doubled  (as  in  anmcs,  ullus,  mitto),  care  should  be 
taken  to  pronounce  both  letters  distinctly.  It  was  doubtless  this  distinct  pronuncia- 
tion of  consonants  that  made  a  syllable  with  a  short  vowel  long  by  Position  (i8.  </). 

17.  By  the  English  method,  the  letters  have  the  same 
sound  as  in  English  ;  but  — 

a.  There  are  no  silent  letters,  each  word  having  as  many 
syllables  as  there  are  vowels  or  diphthongs. 

b.  Final  a  is  pronounced  as  in  America;  but  in  the  mono- 
syllables a,  da,  qua,  sta,  the  long  sound  is  sometimes  given. 

c.  The  diphthongs  ae,  oe,  are  pronounced  like  e ;  au  like  aw ; 
eu  like  ew ;  ei  and  ui  like  i  in  kite;  es  and  (in  plural  words) 
OS  at  the  end  of  a  word  as  in  disease,  morose. 

d.  The  consonants  o  and  g  are  made  soft  (like  s  and  j)  before 
e,  i,  y,  ae,  oe,  eu:  oh  is  always  hard,  as  in  chasm,  chemist. 

Note.  —  The  English  method  should  be  retained  in  the  translation  of  Roman 
names,  as  Julius  Ccesar ;  and  in  the  quoting  of  familiar  phrases,  as  e  pluribns 
unum  ;  viva  voce;  a  fortiori ;  veni,  vidi,  vici,  &c. 

^  As  in  the  nautical  ay,  ay,  sir.  "^  As  in  few. 


8  Etymology:  Letters  and  Sounds. 

Quantity  and  Accent. 

O  18.  The  following  are  general  Rules  of  Quantity :  — 

a.  A  vowe)  before  another  vowel  or  h  is  short :  as  in  vta, 
nihil. 

b.  A  diphthong  is  long  :  as  in  aides,  foedus. 

c.  A  syllable  formed  by  contraction  is  long  :  as  nil  {nihil). 

d.  A  syllable  in  which  a  vowel  is  followed  by  two  consonants, 
or  a  double  consonant  (x,  z),  is  long:  as  in  rectus^  rexit.  Before 
nf  and  ns  the  vowel  itself  becomes  long :  as  in  Infero^  praesens. 

e.  A  syllable  in  which  a  short  vowel  is  followed  by  a  mute 
with  1  or  r  is  common ;  i.  e.  it  may  be  long  in  verse :  as  in 
alder  is ^  late  brae. 

N.B.  —  The  sign  -  indicates  that  a  vowel  is  usually  long;  G  that 
it  is  usually  short.  But  the  former  is  also  used  to  denote  any 
vowel  that  is  common. 

v/  19.  The  following  are  Rules  of  Accent :  — 

a.  Words  of  two  syllables  are  always  accented  on  the  first 
syllable. 

b.  Words  of  more  than  two  syllables  are  accented  on  the 
Penult,  if  that  is  long :  as,  aml^cus  ;  if  it  is  sliort  or  common, 
then  on  the  Antepenult :  as,  ddfnlnus,  a'lacris,  la'tebrae. 

DEFiNrriON:  The  Penult  is  the  last  syllable  but  one;  the  Ante- 
penult, the  last  but  two.     (For  exceptions,  see  40.  b,  142.  b.) 

c.  When  an  Enclitic  is  joined  to  a  word,  the  accent  falls  on 
the  syllable  next  before  the  enclitic,  whether  long  or  short :  as, 
did'qzte,  dmar^ve,  tlbUne,  itd'que  (and  so),  as  distinguished  from 
itdque,  (therefore).  So  (according  to  some  authorities)  ex'inde^ 
ec'quando,  &c. 

Note. —  The  ancients  recognized  three  accents,  acute  (^),  grave  (^),  and 
circumflex  (").  Accent  no  doubt  consisted  in  a  change  of  pitch,  —  elevation, 
depression,  or  both  combined,  —  and  not  merely  in  a  more  forcible  utterance 
(k/us).  But  as,  in  all  cases  except  in  reading  poetry  (which  was  a  sort  of 
recitative),  the  idus  and  elevation  coincided,  the  matter  is  unimportant  in  Latin. 
Indeed,  an  accurate  ear  will  distinguish  the  same  thing  in  English,  though  much 
slijjhtcr  than  probably  existed  among  the  ancients. 

The  Rules  of  Accent  given  above  are  the  only  ones  which  are  recognized  in 
modem  usage,  or  which  it  seems  worth  while  to  observe.  But  the  circumflex 
accent,  including  both  acute  and  grave,  was  recognized  by  the  ancients  in  all  long 
monosyllables  (as  mos,  ^/<Jj),  and  in  a  few  other  cases.  The  sign  *  is  often  written 
merely  to  show  contraction  :  as,  «//  (;//7//V),  ititr^rat  {iniravera/),  or  to  mark  the 
long  a  of  the  ablative :  as,  Kom^, 


Inflection  ;  Root  and  Stem.  g 

Chapter  II. —  Words  and  their  Forms. 

y  Inflection. 

20.  Inflection  is  a  change  made  in  the  form  of  a 
word,  to  show  its  grammatical  relations. 

a.  Changes  of  inflection  sometimes  take  place  in  the  body  of 
a  word,  or  at  the  beginning,  but  oftener  in  its  termination :  as, 
vox,  a  voice ;  vocis,  of  a  voice ;  v6co,  /  call  j  v6cat,  he  calls  j 
vocavit,  he  has  called j  tangit,  he  touches  j  tetigit,  he  touched. 

b.  Terminations  of  inflection  had  originally  an  independent 
meaning  which  is  now  obscured.  They  correspond  nearly  to  the 
use  of  prepositions,  auxiliaries,  or  personal  pronouns  in  English  : 
thus,  in  v5cat,  the  termination  is  equivalent  to  he  or  she ;  in 
vocis,  to  the  preposition  ofj  and  in  vocet  the  change  of  vowel 
signifies  a  change  of  mood. 

c.  Changes  of  inflection  in  the  body  of  a  verb  usually  denote 
relations  of  tense  or  mood,  and  correspond  to  the  use  of  auxiliary 
verbs  in  English  :  as,  frangit  (root  frag-),  he  breaks  or  is  break- 
ing j  fregit,  he  broke  or  has  broken;  frangat,  let  him  break. ^ 

Koot  and  Stem. 

y  21.  The  body  of  a  word,  to  which  the  terminations 
are  attached,  is  called  the  Stem.^ 

The  Stem  contains  the  idea  of  the  word  without  relations  ;  but, 
in  general,  it  cannot  be  used  without  some  termination  to  express 
them.  Thus  the  stem  voc-  denotes  voice j  with  -s  added  it 
becomes  vox,  a  voice  or  the  voice^  as  the  subject  or  agent  of  an 
action  ;  with  -is  it  becomes  vocis,  and  signifies  of  a  voice.  It 
is  in  many  forms  so  united  with  the  termination  that  a  comparison 
with  other  forms  is  necessary  to  determine  it. 

^  22.  A  primitive  form,  expressing  the  simple  idea  less 
definitely,  and  common  also  to  other  words,  either  in 
the  same  or  other  languages,  is  called  a  Root.^ 

*  The  only /r£7/^r  inflections  of  verbs  are  those  of  the  personal  endings;  and 
the  changes  here  referred  to  are  strictly  changes  of  Stem. 

2  The  name  Stem  is  sometimes  incorrectly  given  to  that  part  of  a  word  —  as 
serv-  in  j-^rz/wj  —  which  is  unchanged  in  inflection.  This  may,  for  convenience, 
be  called  the  Base. 

8  For  example,  the  root  sta  is  found  in  the  Sanskrit  tisthami,  Greek  1<ttikii, 
Latin  sistere  and  siare,  German  ftel^Clt,  and  English  stand.    (See  Chap.  VIII.) 


lo  Etymology :    Words  and  their  Forms. 

Thus  the  root  of  the  stem  voc-  is  voc,  which  means  not 
to  call,  or  /  call,  or  calling,  but  merely  call;  and  cannot  be  used 
as  a  part  of  speech  without  terminations.  With  a  it  becomes 
v6ca-,  the  stem  of  vocdre  (to  call) ;  with  avi-  it  is  the  stem  of 
vocdvit  (he  called)  ;  with  at6-  it  becomes  the  stem  of  vocdtus 
(called)  ;  with  Stion-  it  becomes  the  stem  of  vocdtionis  (of  a 
calling).  With  its  vowel  lengthened  it  becomes  the  stem  erf 
v5x  (a  voice  :  that  by  which  we  call).  This  stem,  again,  with 
alls  added,  means  belonging  to  a  voice j  with  iila,  a  little  voice. 

Note.  —  In  inflected  languages,  words  are  built  up  from  Roots,  which  at  a 
very  early  time  were  used  alone  to  express  ideas,  as  is  now  done  in  Chinese. 
Roots  are  modified  into  Stems,  which,  by  inflection,  become  Words.  The  process 
by  which  they  are  modified,  in  the  various  forms  of  derivatives  and  compounds, 
is  called  Stem-building. 

23.  The  Stem  is  sometimes  the  same  with  the  Root :  as  in 
dUc-is,  fer-t ;  but  is  more  frequently  formed  from  the  root  — 

1.  By  changing  or  lengthening  its  vowel,  as  in  reg-is,  voc-is; 

2.  By  the  addition  or  insertion  of  a  consonant,  as  in  tollo, pango  ■ 

(from  TUL,  PAG  ;  here  a  vowel  also  is  added  :  see  4) ; 

3.  By  the  addition  of  a  terminal  vowel,  as  \xifugi-s,fuga  (fug)  ; 

4.  By  two  or  more  of  these  methods,  as  in  diici-t; 

5.  By  derivation  and  composition,  following  the  laws  of  develop- 

ment peculiar  to  the  language  (see  Chapter  VIII. )• 

24.  The  terminations  of  inflection  are  variously  modified  by 
combination  with  the  final  vowel  or  consonant  of  the  Stem,  leading 
to  the  various  forms  of  Declension  and  Conjugation  (see  32^). 

Note.  —  A  termination  beginning  with  a  vowel  is  called  an  open  affix;  one 
beginning  with  a  consonant,  a  close  affix.  When  a  close  affix  is  joined  to  a  con- 
sonant-stem, there  is  usually  either  a  euphonic  change,  as  rexi  for  reg-si,  or  a 
vowel  appears,  as  reg-i-bus.  But,  in  most  cases,  what  is  called  a  connecting 
vowel  really  belongs  to  the  stem,  as  in  voca-mus,  regi-mus  {stt^.  72.  «.). 

The  Parts  of  Speech. 

25.  Words  are  either  Nouns,  Adjectives,  Pronouns, 
Verbs,  Participles,  Adverbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunc- 
tions, or  Interjections.  These  are  called  Parts  of 
Speech. 

a.  Words  like  CcEsar^  consul,  temple,  virtue,  which  are  names 
of  persons,  things,  or  ideas,  are  called  Nouns.  Names  of  persons 
and  places  are  called  Proper  Nouns. 

b.  Words  like  brave,  loud^  strongs  which  express  qualities,  are 
called  Adjectives. 


Parts  of  Speech;    Gender.  \\ 

c.  Words  which  indicate  any  person  or  thing,  without  either 
naming  or  describing,  are  called  Pronouns.  These  include  Per- 
sonal, as  /,  thou,  we,  he,  they ;  and  Adjective,  as  these,  those 
(Demonstrative),  my,  your  (Possessive),  who,  which  (Relative  or 
Interrogative). 

d.  Words  like  build,  fight,  stand,  be,  suffer,  which  express  actions 
or  conditions,  are  called  Verbs. 

e.  Words  like  conquering,  going,  gone,  beaten,  which  describe  by 
means  of  actions  or  conditions,  are  called  Participles. 

f.  Words  like  nobly,  well,  very,  here,  now,  to-day,  which  define 
an  action  or  quality  in  manner,  place,  time,  or  the  like,  are  called 
Adverbs. 

g.  Words  like  for,  with,  by,  against,  which  show  the  relation 
between  a  noun  and  other  words  in  the  sentence,  are  called 
Prepositions. 

h.  Words  like  and,  or,  if,  but,  because,  which  connect  words 
or  sentences  together,  are  called  Conjunctions. 

/.  Some  words,  as  where,  while,  till,  nevertheless,  both  define 
as  adverbs  and  connect  as  conjunctions.  These  are  called  Ad- 
verbial Conjunctions. 

k.  Words  like  ah  /  ho  I  alas  /  are  mere  exclamations,  and  are 
not  strictly  parts  of  speech,  but  are  called  Interjections. 

26.  Nouns,  Adjectives,  Pronouns,  and  Participles  have  inflec- 
tions of  declension,  to  denote  gender,  number,  and  case.  Verbs 
have  inflections  of  conjugation,  to  denote  voice,  mood,  tense,  num- 
ber, and  person. 

27.  Those  parts  of  speech  which  are  not  inflected  are  called 
Particles  :  these  are  Adverbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  and 
Interjections. 

Note.  —  The  term  Particle  is  sometimes  limited  to  such  words  as  num,  -ne, 
AN  {interrogative),  non,  ne  {negative),  si  {conditional),  &c.,  which  are  used 
simply  to  indicate  the  form  or  construction  of  a  sentence.  Interjections  are  not 
properly  to  be  classed  among  parts  of  speech,  and  differ  little  from  inarticulate 
sounds.  For  convenience,  a  list  is  given  of  those  in  most  common  use,  following 
the  CoRJtmctions. 

Gender. 

^ae.  The  gender  of  Latin  nouns  is  either  natural  or 
grammatical. 

a.  Natural  gender  is  distinction  as  to  the  sex  of  the  object 
denoted :   as,  puer,  boyj  pu«lla,  girlj  dSaum,  gift. 


12  Etymology:    Words  and  their  Forms. 

b.  Many  masculine  nouns  have  a  corresponding  feminine  form  : 
as,  cervus,  cerva,  stag^  doe;  cliens,  clienta,  client  j  victor,  victrix, 
conqueror.  Many  designations  of  persons  (as  nauta,  sailor'),  usu- 
ally though  not  necessarily  male,  are  masculine. 

c.  Grammatical  gender  is  a  like  distinction  where  no  sex  exists 
in  the  object,  and  is  shown  by  the  form  of  the  adjective  joined  with 
it :  as,  lapis  magnus  (m.),  a  great  stone j  manus  mea  (f.),  my 
hand. 

d.  A  few  neuter  nouns  are  used  to  designate  persons  as  belong- 
ing to  a  class  :  as,  manoipium  tuum,  your  slave.  Names  of  classes 
or  bodies  of  persons  may  be  of  either  gender  :  as,  exercitus  (m.). 
acies  (f.),  and  agmen  (n.),  army;  and  the  feminine  operae,  work^ 
men,  copiae,  troops.  Many  pet  names  (as  Paegnium^  Glycerium) 
are  also  neuter. 

Note.  — What  we  ci!A.  grammatical  gender  is  in  most  cases  the  product  of  the 
imagination  at  a  rude  age,  when  language  was  in  the  course  of  growth.  Thus  a 
River  was  seen,  or  a  Wind  was  felt,  as  a  living  creature^  violent  and  strong,  and  so 
is  masculine ;  a  Month  is  a  guide  or  divider  of  tasks,  and  so  is  masculine ;  and  the 
fable  of  Atlas  shows  how  similar  living  attributes  were  ascribed  to  Mountains,  which, 
in  the  northern  fables,  are  the  bones  of  giants.  Again,  the  Earth,  or  a  country  or 
city,  seems  the  mother  of  its  progeny ;  the  Tree  shelters  and  ripens  its  fruit,  as  a 
brooding  bird  her  nest  of  eggs ;  and,  to  this  day,  a  Ship  is  always  referred  to  by  a 
feminine  pronoun. 

Again,  in  the  East  and  South,  the  Sun,  from  its  fierce  heat  and  splendor,  is 
masculine,  and  its  paler  attendant,  the  Moon,  feminine ;  while,  among  northern 
nations,  the  Sun  (perhaps  for  its  comforting  warmth)  is  feminine,  and  the  Moon 
(the  appointer  of  works  and  days)  masculine.  The  niles  of  grammatical  gender 
only  repeat  and  extend  these  early  workings  of  the  fancy. 

29.  Names  of  Male  beings,  Rivers,  Winds,  and  Mountains,  are 
masculine;  names  of  Female  beings.  Cities,  Countries,  Plants,  and 
Gems,  of  many  Animals  (especially  Birds),  and  of  most  abstract 
Qualities,  zxt  feminine. 

Note.  —  Most  of  the  above  may  be  recognized  by  their  terminations,  according 
to  the  rules  of  gender  under  the  several  declensions. 

a»  A  few  names  of  Rivers  ending  in  a,  with  the  Greek  names 
Lithi  and  Styx,  are  feminine  ;  others  are  variable  or  uncertain. 

Some  names  of  Mountains  take  the  gender  of  their  termination : 
as,  Alpis  (f.),  Sdracte  (n.).  Names  of  Months  are  properly  adjec- 
tives, the  masculine  noun  minsis  being  understood. 

b.  Some  names  of  Towns  and  Countries  are  masculine,  as 
Sulmo,  Gabii  (plur.)  ;  or  neuter,  as  Tarentum,  Illyricum.  A  few 
aames  of  plants  and  gems  follow  the  gender  of  their  termination. 


Gender ;  Number  and  Case.  13 

c.  Indeclinable  nouns,  infinitives,  terms  or  phrases  used  as 
nouns,  and  words  quoted  merely  for  their  form,  are  neuter:  as, 
fas^  nihil,  gu7nmij  scire  tuum,  triste  valej  hoc  ipsu7n  diu. 

30.  Many  nouns  may  be  either  masculine  or  feminine,  accord- 
ing to  the  sex  of  the  object.  These  are  said  to  be  of  Common 
Gender  :  as,  exsul,  exile;  bos,  ox  or  cow. 

a.  If  a  noun  signifying  a  thing  without  life  may  be  either 
masculine  or  feminine, -^  as,  dies,  day j  finis,  end,  —  it  is  some- 
times said  to  be  of  Doubtful  Gender. 

b.  Several  names  of  animals  have  a  grammatical  gender,  in- 
dependent of  sex.  These  are  called  Epicene.  Thus  lepus,  hare, 
is  always  masculine,  and  vulpes,  fox,  is  always  feminine.  To 
denote  a  male  fox  we  may  say,  vulpes  masculaj  or  a  female 
hare,  lepus  femina. 

Number  and  Case. 

31.  Nouns,  Pronouns,  and  Adjectives  are  declined  in 
two  Numbers,  singular  and  plural ;  and  in  six  Cases, 
nominative,  genitive,  dative.,  accusative,  vocative,  ablative. 

a.  The  Nominative  is  the  case  of  the  Subject  of  a  sentence. 

b.  The  Genitive  may  generally  be  translated  by  the  English 
Possessive,  or  by  the   preposition  of. 

c.  The  Dative  is  the  case  of  the  Indirect  Object :  it  may  usually 
be  translated  by  the  preposition  to  or  for  ;  but  sometimes 
corresponds  to  the  English  Objective. 

d.  The  Accusative  is  the  case  of  the  Direct  Object :  it  is  used 
with  many  of  the  Latin  Prepositions. 

e.  The  Vocative  is  the  case  of  Direct  Address. 

f.  The  Ablative  may  usually  be  translated  by  from,  by,  with, 
IN,  or  AT.     It  is  also  often  used  with  prepositions. 

^'^^.  All  the  cases,  except  the  nominative  and  vocative,  may  be 
•used  as  object-cases  ;  and  are  sometimes  called  oblique  cases. 

h.  In  names  of  towns  and  a  few  other  words    appear  traces 
of  another  case|^(the  locative^,  denoting  the  place  where. ^ 
s/      Note.  —  A  more  convenient  arrangement  of  the  cases  is  the 
following  (See  Note,  p.  145)  :  — 

Direct  Cases  :  Nominative,  Vocative,  Accusative. 
Indirect  Cases  :  Genitive,  Dative,  Ablative. 


» 

z. 

» 

» 

3. 

» 

)) 

4- 

>) 

» 

5- 

» 

14  Etymology  :  Declension  of  Nou7is, 

Chapter  III.  —  Declensimt  of  Nouns, 

^32.  Nouns  are  inflected  in   five  Declensions,  distin- 
guished  by  the   termination  of   the  Genitive  Singular, 
and  by  the  final  letter  (characteristic)  of  the  Stem.^ 
Decl.  I.  Gen.  Sing,  ae  Characteristic  a  (anciently  a) 

Is  „  i  or  a  Consonant 

us  (uis)     „  tl 

ei  „  e 

a.  The  stem  of  a  noun  may  be  found,  if  a  consonant-stem,  by 
omitting  the  case-ending ;  if  a  vowel-stem,  by  substituting  for 
the  case-ending  the  characteristic  vowel. 

b.  The  Nominative  of  most  mascuhne  and  feminine  nouns  (ex- 
cept in  the  first  declension)  is  formed  from  the  Stem  by  adding  8.2 

Note.  —  Many,  however,  end  in  o,  or  in  the  liquids,  L,  n,  r,  —  the  original  s 
(sometimes  with  one  or  more  letters  of  the  stem)  having  been  lost  through  phonetic 
decay.  In  some  (as  in  servus)  the  stem-vowel  is  modified  before  the  final  s ; 
and  in  some,  as  in  ager,  imber,  a  vowel  is  inserted  in  the  stem. 

V     33.  The  following  are  general  Rules  of  Declension  : 

a.  The  Vocative  is  always  the  same  with  the  Nominative, 
except  in  the  singular  of  nouns  in  us  of  the  second  declension.^ 

b.  In  neuters  the  nominative  and  accusative  are  always  alike, 
and  in  the  plural  end  in  S. 

'  Declension  is  produced  by  adding  terminations  originally  significant  to 
different  forms  of  stems,  vowel  or  consonant.  The  various  phonetic  corruptions 
in  the  language  have  given  rise  to  the  several  forms  of  declension  ;  but  it  is  proba- 
ble that  originally  there  was  only  one  form,  with  perhaps  a  few  variations.  The 
original  terminations  (answering  to  prepositions)  can  no  longer  be  determined  with 
certainty,  though  some  earlier  forms  may  be  known.  Most  of  the  case-endings,  as 
given  in  Latin,  contain  also  the  final  letter  of  the  stem. 

Adjectives  are,  in  general,  declined  like  nouns,  and  are  etymologically  to  be 
classed  with  them.  But  they  have  several  peculiarities  of  inflection,  and  will  be 
more  conveniently  treated  in  a  group  by  themselves  (see  Chapter  IV.). 

*''  The  s  of  the  nominative  is  the  remnant  of  an  old  demonstrative  sa,  which  is 
found  (with  modifications)  in  the  Sanskrit /^rjo«dr/ /row*?;///,  in  the  Greek  article^ 
and  in  the  Knglish  she. 

*  In  the  first  and  second  declensions  the  vocative  ends  in  the  (modified)  stem- 
vowel.  Most  of  the  words  likely  to  be  used  in  address  are  of  these  forms  ;  and, 
in  practice,  few  other  words  have  a  vocative.  It  is  given  in  the  paradigms  for  the 
take  of  symmetry,  but  may  well  be  omitted  in  declining. 


First  Declension. 


15 


c.  Except  in  some  neuters,  the  accusative  singular  always 
ends  in  m,  and  the  accusative  plural  in  s. 

d.  In  the  last  three  declensions  (and  in  a  few  cases  in  the 
others)  the  dative  singular  ends  in  L 

e.  The  dative  and  ablative  plural  are  always  ahke. 

f.  The  genitive  plural  always  ends  in  um. 

g.  The  final  i,  o,  u  of  inflection  are  always  lotigj  the  final  a  is 
short,  except  in  the  ablative  singular  of  the  first  declension  ;  the 
final  e  is  long  in  the  first  and  fifth  declensions,  short  in  the  second 
and  third. 

^^    34.  The  case-endings  of  the  several  declensions  are  the  follow- 
ing, rare  forms  being  given  in  parenthesis,  Greek  form^  in  italics  :  — 


Decl.  I. 

11.               y 

' 

IV. 

V. 

Sing. 

N.  a        e,  as,  es. 

us,um,  er<»5,<»«,«/j 

S (or  modified  Stem) 

us,  u 

es 

G.  ae  (ai)  es 

i  (ius)         0,  u,  ei 

Is                   yos,  t>s 

us  (uis) 

ei(e) 

D.  ae  (ai) 

6  (i)                    ei,  eo 

i 

ui(u) 

ei(S) 

A.  am        an,  en 

um.           on       ea 

era  (im)    in,  yn  a. 

um,  u 

em 

V.  a            e 

6  (i)    er          eu 

(asnom.)     t,  y 

iisju 

es 

A.  a                  e 

6                         eo 

e(i),i         ye 

u 

e 

Plur. 

N.  V.  ae 

i    & 

es,  a,  la            is 

us,  ua 

es 

G.  arum  (um) 

orum  (um,  cm)  on 

um,  ium            edn 
h)us 

uum 

erum 

D.  A.  is  (abus) 

is  (obus) 

ft>us(tlbus) 

ebus 

A.  as 

OS 

es  (is),  a,  la        as 

us,  ua 

es 

FIRST     DECLENSION. 

\^    Note.  —  The   Stem   of  nouns  of  the  First  Declension  ends 
in  S:    Latin  nouns  have  the  Nominative  like  the  stem. 

35.  Latin  nouns  of  the  First  Declension  are  thus 
decHned : — 

SINGULAR. 

Nominative.       stella.  a  (or  the^  star. 

Genitive.  stellae,  of  a  star. 

Dative.  stellae,  to  a  star. 

Accusative.        stellam,  a  star. 

Vocative.  stella,  thou  star  ! 

Ablative.  stella,  with  a  star. 

Gender.  Most  nouns  of  the  first  declension  are  Femi- 
nine. Nearly  all  the  exceptions  are  such  as  are  masculine  from 
their  signification  :  as,  nauta  (sailor).  Also,  Hadria  (the  Adriatic), 
and  a  few  family  or  personal  names  :  as,  Murena,  Sulla. 

36.  Case-Forms,  a.  The  genitive  singular  anciently  ended 
in  ai,  which  is  occasionally  found  in  a  few  authors  :  as,  aulai. 
The  same  ending  occurs  in  the  dative,  but  only  as  a  diphthong. 


PLURAL. 

stellae,  stars. 
stellarum,  of  stars. 
stellis,  to  stars. 
Stellas,  stars. 
stellae,  J^'^  stars  / 
stellis,  with  stars. 


1 6  Etymology  :  Declettsion  of  Nouns. 

b.  There  is  also  an  old  genitive  in  as,  found  in  the  word 
familids  used  in  certain  combinations :  as,  pater  {inciter^  filius, 
ftlid)  familias. 

c.  The  Locative  form  for  the  singular  ends  in  ae,  and  for 
the  plural  in  is:  as,  Romae,  at  Rome j  Athenis,  at  Athens. 

d.  The  genitive  plural  is  sometimes  found  in  um  instead  of 
arum,  especially  in  compounds  with  -c61a  and  -gSna,  signifying 
dwelling  and  descent:  as,  caelicolum  (heavenly  ones),  Troju- 
genum  (sons  of  Troy)  ;  with  amphora  and  drachma. 

^e.  The  dative  and  ablative  plural  of  dea,  goddess,  filia,  daughter^ 
—  also,  rarely,  of  several  other  words:  as,  liberta,  freed-woman^ 
mula,  she-mule,  —  end  in  an  older  form  -abus.  But,  except  when 
the  two  sexes  (as  in  formulas,  documents,  &c.)  are  mentioned 
together,  the  form  in  is  is  preferred  in  all  but  dea,  filia. 

N.  B.  For  the  corresponding  forms  of  Adjectives,  see  Chap.  IV. 
Greek  Nouns. 

f '  37.  Greek  nouns  of  the  first  declension  retain  traces 
of  their  Greek  formation**  and  are  thus  declined  :  — 


comet  {u.).  laurel  (¥^.  yEneas  {m.).  A ncA/ses  (m.). 

NoM.       cometes  (a)  daphne  Aeneas  Anchises 

Gbn.        cometae  daphnes  (ae)     Aeneae  .  Anchisae 

Dat.       cometae  daphne  (ae)       Aeneae  Anchisae 

Ace.         cometen  (am)        daphnen  Aenean  (am)     Anchisen 

Voc,        cometfip  daphne  Aenea  (ft)  Anchise  (&) 

Abl.        cometa  (e)  daphne  (a)         Aenea .  Anchise  (a) 

These  forms  are  found  only  in  the  singular;  the  plural  is 
regular:  as,  cometae,  arum,  &c.  There  are  of  tliis  kind  (besides 
proper  names)  about  thirty-five  words,  several  being  names  of 
plants,  or  names  of  arts  :  as,  miisice.  Most  have  also  regular  Latin 
forms  in  a :  as,  cometa. 

^     SECOND    DECLENSION. 
Note.  —  The  Stem  of  nouns  of  the  Second  Declension  ends 
in  6  (as  of  vir,  vird-,  and  of  servus,  servd-^.^     The  Nominative  is 
formed  from  the  stem  by  adding  s  (in  neuters  m),  the  characteristic 
6  being  weakened  to  tl  (see  lo.  b). 

In  most  nouns  whose  stem  ends  in  ro-,  the  s  is  not  added,  but 
the  o  is.  lost,  and  e  is  inserted  before  r.  Thus  ager  (stem  agro-) 
is  the  same  as  the  Greek  dypos.  The  exceptions  are  hcsperusy 
humerus,  juniperus,  mdrus,  Humerus,  uterus^  tauruSy  virus. 

'  This  form  i«  an  original  S-stem,  to  which  the  Jl-stem  of  the  first  declension  is 
the  corresponding  feminine. 


Second  Decle7tsio7t. 


17 


38.  Latin  nouns  of  the  Second  Declension  are  thus 
declined :  — 


Sing.       slave  (m.). 

boy  (M.); 

Jield  (M.). 

man{u.). 

war  (n.). 

NoM.      serviia 

puer 

aggr 

vir 

bellum 

Gen.       servi 

pueri 

agri 

viri 

belli 

DAT.       servo 

puero 

agro 

viro 

bell5 

Ace.        servum 

puerum 

agrum 

virum 

bellum 

Voc.       servS 

puer 

ager 

vir 

bellum 

Abl.       servo 

puero 

agro 

viro 

bello 

Plur. 

NoM.      servi 

pueri 

agri 

viri 

beim 

Gen.       servorum 

puerorum  agrorum 

virorum 

bellorum 

DAT.       servis 

pueris 

agris 

viris 

bellis 

Ace.        servos 

pueros 

agros 

viros 

bella 

Voc.       servi 

pueri 

agri 

viri 

bella 

Abl.       servis 

pueris 

agris 

viris 

bellis 

Note.  —  The  old  form  os,  om 

(for  us,  um),  is  sometimes  used 

after  u  or  v  :  as,  servos,  servotn. 

The  case-ending  s  or  m  is  some- 

times  omitted  in  inscriptions,  &c.,  as  Cornelio,  for  Cornelius  or 

Cornelium. 

/39.  Gender.  —  Nouns  ending  in  us  (os),  er,  ir,  are 
masculine  ;  those  ending  in  um  (on)  are  Neuter.    But  — 

a.  Names  of  towns  in  us  (os)  are  Feminine  :    as,  Corinthus. 
Also  many  names  of  Plants  and  Gems,  with  the  following  :  — 

arctus  (os),  the  Polar  Bear;  alvus,  belly;  oarbasus,  linen 
(plural  carbasa,  sails,  N.)  ;  colus,  distaff;  humus,  ground; 
vanuus,  winnowing-shovel. 

b.  The  following  in  us  are  Neuter ;  their  accusative,  as  of  all 
neuters,  is  the  same  as  the   nominative :  — 

pelagus,^  j-^^y  v^Ixms,  poison ;  vulgus  (rarely  m.), />^^  ^r^w*^. 

40.  Case-Forms,  a.  The  Locative  form  of  this  declension  for 
the  singular  ends  in  i :  as,  humi,  on  the  groutid;  Corinthi,  at 
Corinth.  For  the  plural,  in  is  :  as,  Philippis,  at  Philippi. 
"^b.  The  genitive  of  nouns  in  ius  or  ium  ends  by  earlier  use  with 
a  single  i  :  as,  fili,  of  a  son ;  inge'ni,  of  genius. "^  The  same  con- 
traction occurs  with  the  genitive  singular  and  the  dative  and  abla- 
tive plural  of  nouns  in  aius  and  eius  :  as,  Grais,  Pompei. 


1  This  has  a  Greek  plural  pelage :  virus  and  vulgus  have  no  plural. 

2  The  genitive  in  it  occurs  twice  in  Virgil,  and  constantly  in  Ovid,     The  accent 
remains  (as  in  ingeni)  on  the  syllable  preceding  the  contraction. 


•f 


1 8  Etymology:  Declension  of  Nouns. 

c.  Proper  names  in  ius  lose  e  in  the  vocative,  as  Vergi'li  ;  also, 
filius,  son;  genius,  divine  guardian.  The  possessive  meus,  my, 
has  mi  :  as,  audi,  mi  f  ili,  hear^  my  son. 

d.  Greek  names  in  ius  have  the  vocative  ie  ;  and  adjectives 
derived  from  proper  names  —  as  Lacedaemonius  —  also  form  the 
vocative  in  ie. 

^.  In  the  genitive  plural,  um  or  (after  v)  cm  is  often  found  for 
5nim,  especially  in  poets,  and  in  certain  words  of  money,  measure, 
and  weight :  as,  nummum,  jugertim,  deum. 

f.  BeuB,god,  has  vocative  deus  ;  plural :  nominative  and  vocative 
dei  or  di  (dii) ;  dative  and  ablative  deis  or  dis  (diis).  For  the  geni- 
tive plural  deorum,  divum  or  divom  (from  divus),  is  often  used. 

^  41.  The  following  stems  in  gro-,  in  which  e  belongs  to  the  stem, 
retain  e  throughout :  compounds  in  -fer  and  -ger,  as  lucifer,  -fgri, 
light-bringer J   armlger,  -gSri,  armor-bearer.     Also, 

adulter,  adulterer j  gener,  son-in-law ;  puer,  boy; 

fioa^x,  father-in-law  J  vesper,  evening. 

a.  Some  of  these  have  an  old  nominative  In  6ruB  :  as,  socerus. 

b.  Vir,  7nan,  has  the  genitive  viri;  the  adjective  satur,  sated, 
has  sattlri  ;  vesper  has  abl.  vespere  (loc.  vesperi). 

c.  Liber  (a  name  of  Bacchus)  has  genitive  LibSri  ;  so,  too,  the 
adjective  liber,  free,  of  which  liberi,  children.,  is  the  plural. 

^;    42.  The  following  insert  e  in  the  nominative  and  vocative :  — 
^^'^x,  field.  coluber,  snake.  liber,  book. 

aper,  boar.  conger,  sea-eel.  magister,  master, 

aihitex,  Judge.  culter,  kmfe.  minister,  servant. 

auster,  south-wind,  faber,  smith.  oleaster,  wild-olive 

cancer,  crab.  fiber,  beaver.  onager  (grus),  wild-ass. 

C3ipex,  goat.  ^eoxxietex,  geometer.  Bcomhex{hxvM),  mackerel. 

N.B.  For  the  corresponding  forms  of  Adjectives,  see  Chap.  IV. 

43.  Greek  nouns  —  including  many  names  in  eus^ 
are  declined  as  follows  in  the  singular,  the  plural  being 
regular :  — 


/ai/e{M.). 

mock-sun  (n.). 

Dfhs  (f.). 

AiAos  (m.). 

Orfk^us  (m.). 

NOM. 

mythos 

parelion 

DeloB 

Ath68(6) 

Orpheus 

Gkn. 

mythi 

parelii 

DeU 

Ath6(I) 

Orpheoa'er 

DAT. 

myths 

parelio 

Del6 

Atho 

Orphei 

Ace. 

mython 

parelion 

Delon(um) 

Ath6(6n) 

Orphea 

\\)C. 

mythe 

parelion 

Dele 

Athoa 

Orpheu 

Abl. 

mythd 

parelid 

Deld 

Ath6 

Orphed 

Third  Declension :   Mute- Stems.  19 

a.  Many  names  in  es  belonging  to  the  Third  Declension  have 
also  a  genitive  in  i,  as  Thilcydides,  Thucydidl  (compare  52). 

b.  Several  names  in  er  have  also  a  form  in  us :  as,  Teucer  or 
Teucrus.     The  name  Panthus  has  the  vocative  Panthil. 

c.  The  genitive  plural  of  certain  titles  takes  the  Greek  ter- 
mination on :  as,  Georgicon. 

THIRD    DECLENSION. 

Note.  —  Nouns  of  the  Third  Declension  are  most  conveniently 
classed  according  to  their  stems,  as  ending  either  in  a  Vowel  (i), 
a  Liquid  (1,  n,  r),  or  a  Mute.     A  few  whose  stems  ends  in  u  (gr7is,  , 
siis)  are  treated  as  consonant-stems.  (  The  Nominative  (except  of 
neuters  and  of  Hquid-stems)  is  found  by  adding  s  to  the  stem.  \ 

1.  —  Mute-Stems. 

^^%^.  Masculine  or  feminine  nouns,  whose  stem  ends  in 
a  Mute,  form  the  nominative  by  adding  s.  If  the  mute 
is  a  lingual  (t,  d),  it  is  suppressed  before  s ;  if  it  is  a 
palatal  (c,  g),  it  unites  with  s,  forming  x.  fl^euters  have 
for  nominative  the  simple  stem.^ 

Examples  :  op-is,  ops ;  custod-is,  custos  ;  reg-is,  rex.^ 
Q  45.  The  vowel  before  the  final  consonant  of  the  stem 
is  often  modified :  — 

a.  Labials.  —  Stems  in  Ip-  have  e  in  the  nominative  :  as, 
adip-is,  adeps.  Most  stems  in  cip-  are  compounds  of  the  root 
CAP  (in  oapio,  take) :  as,  particip-is^  particeps.  In  these  the  stem 
sometimes  has  the  form  cup-,  as  aucup-is,  auceps. 

b.  LiNGUALS.  —  Stems  in  it-  (m.  or  f.)  have  e  in  the  nomina- 
tive :  as,  hospit-is,  hospes.  (The  neuter  capit-is  has  caput.  Neuter 
stems  ending  in  two  consonants,  and  those  ending  in  St-  (Greek 
nouns),  drop  the  final  lingual :  as,  cord-is^  cor ;  poemat-is,  poema/) 

c.  Palatals.  —  Stems  in  3lo-  (short  i)  have  the  nominative  in 
ex,2  and  are  chiefly  masculine  :  as,  apic-is,  apex.  Those  in  ic- 
(long  i)  retain  i,  and  are  feminine  :  as,  cormc-is,  cornix.^ 

1  In  these  examples  the  genitive  form  is  given  to  show  the  stem  as  it  occurs  in 
practice. 

2  With  a  few  exceptions  (see  67.  e). 

3  In  nix,  nivis,  the  nominative  contains  a  palatal  lost  in  the  other  cases 
(original  stem  snig-,  compare  nmgit).     Snpcllex  {ectilis)  is  partly  a  lingual,  partly 


20 


Etymology :   Declension  of  Nouns. 


i^. 


46.  Nouns  of  this  class  are  declined  as  follows :  — 


Slug. 

help  (F.). 

king  (m.). 

guide  (c.),  soldier  {yi..\ 

).  head  (n.). 

NOM. 

[op8.]i 

rSx 

dux 

miles 

caput 

Gen. 

opia 

regis 

ducis 

mllitis 

capitis 

DAT. 

opi 

regi 

duci 

mlliti 

capiti 

Ace. 

opem 

regem 

ducem 

militem 

caput 

Voc. 

ops 

rex 

dux 

miles 

caput 

Abl. 

ope 

rege 

duce 

mllite 

capite 

Plur. 

wealth. 

NOM. 

opes 

reges 

duces 

milites 

capita 

Gen. 

opum 

regum 

ducum 

militum 

capitum 

DAT. 

opibuB 

regibus 

ducibus 

mllitibus 

capitibus 

Ace. 

opes 

reges 

duces 

milites 

capita 

Voc. 

opes 

reges 

duces 

milites 

capita 

Abl. 

opibus 

regibus 

ducibus 

mllitibus 

capitibus 

47.  In  like  manner  are  declined 


princeps,  ipis  (c),  chief. 
lapis,  idis  (m,),  stone. 
custos,  odis  (c),  guard. 
comes,  itis  (c),  cojnpanion. 


aries,  etis  (m.),  ram. 
apex,  apicis  (m.),  peak. 
cornix,  icis  (f.),  raven. 
poema,  atis  {yi.\poem  (47.  b). 


a.  Many  apparent  mute-stems,  having  the  genitive  plural  in 
ium,  are  to  be  classed  with  i-stems  (54). 

b.  Greek  neuters  (as  poema),  with  nominative  singular  in  a, 
frequently  end  the  dative  and  ablative  plural  in  is,  and  the  genitive 
rarely  in  orum. 

y,  J8.  —  liiquid-Stems. 

48.  In  nouns  whose  stem  ends  in  a  Liquid  (1,  n,  r), 
the  nominative  is  the  same  as  the  stem,  except  when 
modified  as  follows  :  — 

a.  Stems  in  on-  (m.  and  F.)  drop  n  :  as,  in  ledn-iSy  lea;  legion-isy 
legio. 

b.  Stems  in  din-  or  gin-  (mostiy  feminine)  have  o  in  the  nom- 
inative :  as,  virgin-is,  virgo.  Other  stems  in  In-  have  e  :  as, 
cornicin-is,  comicen  (m.)  ;  carmin-is,  carmen  (n.). 

an  i-stem.  Of  apparent  s-stems  in  Latin,  as  (assis)  is  an  /-stem  ;  the  original  stem 
of  OS,  ossis,  is  os/i-  (cf.  oartov  and  Sanskrit  ast/ii);  while  the  others  have  either 
(i)  passed  into  r-stems  (changed  from  s)  in  most  of  the  cases,  as  honor,  oris, 
corpus,  6ris  (see  liquid  stetns);  or  (2)  have  broken  down  into  /'-stems,  as  molts 
(cf.  molestus),  nitbes  (Sanskrit  nabhas^,  sides  (cf.  t5o«),  vis  {x^res\  &c. 

'  The  singular  (meaning  /id/)  is  not  used  in  the  nominative,  except  as  the 
name  of  a  divinity. 


Third  Declension:   Liquid- Stems. 


21 


c.  Stems  in  tr-  retain  an  original  e :  as,  patr-is.,  pater. 

d.  Many  neuter   stems  in  er   and  or  have  the  nominative  inj 
us  :  as,  oper-is,  opus;  corpor-is,  corpus.      A  few  masculine  andj 
feminine  stems  also  have  the  nominative  in  s  as  well  as  r :  as, 
honor-is,  honos  (or  honor')  ;  arbor-is,  arbos  (or  arbor). ^ 

e.  Stems  in  11,  rr  (n.)  lose  one  of  their  hquids  in  the  nomina- 
tive :  as  farr-is,  far  j  fell-is,  fel. 

"^9.  Nouns  of  this  class  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 


Sing. 

NOM. 

Gen. 

DAT. 

Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 
Plur. 

NOM. 

Gen. 

DAT. 

Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

50. 


consul  (m.).  lion  (m.).  maiden{¥.).  name  (n.).  body  (n.). 


consul 

consulis 

consul! 

consulem 

consul 

c5nsule 

consules 
consulum 


leo 

leonis 

leoni 

leonem 

leo 

le5ne 

leonea 
leonum 


Virgo 

Virginia 

virgin! 

virginem 

virgo 

virgine 

Virginia 


nomen 

nominia 

nomin! 

nomen 

nomen 

nomine 


nomma 
nominum 


corpus 

corporia 

corpor! 

corpus 

corpus 

corpore 


corpora 
corporum 


consulibus   lednibua  virginibua  n5minibus  corporibus 

c5nsules       leones  virgines  nomina  corpora 

consules       leones  virgines  nomina  corpora 

c5nsulibua  leonibua  virginibua  nominibus  corporibua 

In  like  manner  are  declined  — 

pater,  patria  (u.),  father.        arbor  (oa),  oria  (f.),  tree. 

ebur,  oria  (n,),  ivory.  honor  (oa),  oria  (m.),  honor. 

opua,  eria  (n.),  work.  aequor,  oria  (y^.),  plain. 

The  following  apparent  liquid-stems  have  the  genitive  plural  in 
ium,  and  are  to  be  classed  with  i-stems :  — imber,  littter,  titer, 
venter;  with  the  monosyllables  filr,  glis,  Idr,  mas,  mils,  [ren']  ; 
also  vtres  (from  vis  :  see  6i). 


Vowel-Stems. 


U< 


51.  Vowel-stems  of  the  Third  Declension  end  in  i  (as 
of  turris,  turri-  ;  mare,  mari-).  The  nominative,  except 
in  neuters,  is  formed  by  adding  s  to  the  stem. 

a.    Thirty-seven  nouns  change  i  to  e  in  the  nominative. ^ 

1  These  stems  originally  ended  in  s.     (See  Note  3,  page  19.) 

2  These  are  acindces,  aedes,  alces,  caedes,  cautes,  clddes,  comfdges,  contdges^ 
crates,  fames,  feles,  fides,  indoles,  labes,  lues,  meles,  moles,  nubes,  palumbes, 
proles,  propdges,  pubes,  sedes,  sepes,  sordes,  strdges,  strues,  sub^les,  stides,  tdbes^ 
torques,  tudes,  vdtes,  vehes,  vepres,  verres,  vulpes  {aedes  has  also  nom.  is). 


22 


Etymology :   Declension  of  Nouns. 


b.  The  nominative  of  a  few  stems  in  bri-  and  tri-  does  not  add  s, 
but  loses  i,  inserting  e  before  r  :  viz.,  imber,  linter,  titer ^  venter  {^\). 

c.  The  nominative  of  neuters  is  the  same  as  the  stem,  with  the 
change  of  I-  to  6-  (as  in  mare).  But,  when  i  is  preceded  by  al  or 
ar,  the  e  is  lost,  as  in  animal  (53.  b^.^ 

^^  52.  Nouns  of  this  class  are  inflected  as  follows :  — 


Sing. 

thirst  (F.). 

tower  (p.). 

cloud  (p.). 

sea  (n.). 

animal  (n.). 

NOM. 

sitis 

turris 

nubes 

mare 

animal 

Gen. 

sitis 

turris 

nijbis 

maris 

animalis 

DAT. 

siti 

turri 

nubi 

mari 

animaii 

Ace. 

sitim 

turrem  (im) 

nubem 

mare 

animal 

Voc. 

sitis 

turris 

nubes 

mare 

animal 

Abl. 

siti 

turre  (i) 

nube 

mari  (e) 

animaii 

Plur. 

NOM. 

turres 

nubes 

maria 

animalia 

Gen. 

turrium* 

nubium 

marium 

animalium 

DAT. 

turribus 

nubibus 

maribus 

animalibus 

Ace. 

turres  (is) 

nubes  (is) 

maria 

animalia 

Voc. 

turres 

nubes 

maria 

animalia 

Abl. 

turribus 

nubibus 

maribus 

animalibus 

53.  Nouns  of  this  class  include  the  following :  — 

a.  All  nouns  of  the  Third  Declension  having  the  same  number 
of  syllables  in  the  nominative  and  genitive  {parisyllabic),  except- 
ing/rti/^r,  mater,  /rater,  accipiter.  They  end  in  the  nominative  in 
la  or  es  (mostly  feminine),  e  (neuter). 

b.  Neuters  in  al  and  ar  (originally  adjectives  in  alls,  aris),  which 
have  lost  a  final  e.^ 

54.  Many  nouns  with  apparently  consonant-stems 
were  originally  i-stems.^     These  are  — 

1  Except  augurSle,  colldre,  focSle,  mare,  nav&le,  penctrdle,  scutdU,  tibidU; 
alvedre,  capilldre,  cochledre. 

2  These  are  animal,  bacchdnal,  bidental,  capital,  cervical,  cubital,  lupercal, 
minutal,  piitcal,  quadrantal,  toral,  tribunal,  vectigal ;  calcar,  cochlear,  exemplar, 
lacunar,  laquear,  lucar,  luminar,  lupdnar,  palear,  pulv'tnar,  torcular ;  with 
the  plurals  denialia,  frontalia,  genualia,  rdmalia,  sponsalia  ;  altaria,  plantaria, 
specularia,  tdlaria, 

8  The  1 -declension  was  confused  even  \o  the  Romans  themselves,  nor  was  it 
'•■table  at  all  periods  of  the  lanjjuage,  the  early  language  having  i-forms  which 
after\vards  disappeared.  There  was  a  tendency  in  nouns  to  lose  the  i-forms,  in 
idjectives  to  gain  them.  The  accusative  form  (/w)  was  most  thoroughly  lost, 
lu'xt  the  ablative  (/),  next  the  nominative  {is) ;  while  the  genitive  and  accusative 
plural  {ium.  Is)  were  retained  in  almost  all. 


Third  Declension :    Vowel-Stems. 


23 


1.  Monosyllables  with  stem  ending  in  two  consonants  :  as,  urbs^ 
mons  {montis),  fiox  {fioctis)^  arxj  together  with  imber,  linter, 
iiter,  venter  (51.  b^. 

2.  Stems  in  tat-  (as  civitds,  -aiis),^  or  in  d  or  t  preceded  by 
a  consonant  (including  participles  used  as  nouns)  ;  the  mono- 
syllables dos^  {faux~\,  fur,  glfs,  Its,  mas,  7nus,  nix,  [ren],  strix,  vis. 

3.  Nouns  denoting  birth  or  abode,  having  stems  in  at-,  it-,  origi- 
nally adjectives  (as  Arpinds,  dtis^,  with  Penates  and  Optimdies. 

They  are  thus  declined  :  — 
^^Sing.  city  (f.).     night  (f.).     age  (f.). 


NOM. 

urbs 

nox 

aetas 

mus 

Gen. 

urbia 

noctis 

aetatis 

muris 

DAT. 

urbi 

nocti 

aetati 

miiri 

Ace. 

urbem 

noctem 

aetatem 

murem 

Voc. 

urbs 

nox 

aetas 

mus 

Abl. 

urbe 

nocte 

aetate 

mure 

Plur. 

NOM. 

urbes 

noctea 

aetates 

mures 

Gen. 

urbium 

noctium 

aetatium  (um) 

mQrium 

DAT. 

urbibu3 

noctibus 

aetatibus 

muribus 

mouse  {u.).  shower  {ta.). 
imber 
imbria 
imbri 
imbrem 
imber 
imbre  (i) 

imbres 
imbrium 
imbribus 
mures  (is)  imbres  (is) 
mures  imbres 

muribus     imbribus 


Ace.    urbes  (is)  noctes  (is)  aetates  (is) 
Voc.    urbes  noctes  aetates 

Abl.    urbibus      noctibus      aetatibus 

N.B.  —  The  declension  of  these  nouns  in  the  singular  differs  in 
no  respect  from  that  of  consonant-stems,  and  in  the  plural  in  no 
respect  from  that  of  vowel-stems. 

V55.  Vowel-stems  show  the  i  of  the  stem  in  the  follow- 
ing forms  :  — 

a.  All  have  the  genitive  plural  in  -ium  (but  see  59).   "" 

b.  All  neuters  have  the  nom.  and  ace.  plural  in  -ia;  -**" 

c.  The  accusative  plural  (m.  or  f.)  is  often  written  -is ; 

d.  The  accusative  singular  (m.  or  f.)  of  a  few  ends  in  -im  (56) ; 

e.  The  ablative  singular  of  all  neuters,  and  of  many  masculinei 
and  feminines,  ends  in  -i  (see  $j). 

4.  —  Case   Forms. 

56.  The  regular  form  of  the  accusative  singular  (m.  or 
F.)  would  be  im :  as  of  sitis,  sitim  ;  but  in  most  nouns 
this  is  changed  to  em.    .,.,^,^ 


1  These,  however,  more  commonly  have  the  genitive  pkiral  in  urn. 


24  Etymology:   Declension  of  Nouns, 

a.  The  accusative  in  im  is  found  exclusively  — 

1.  In  Greek  nouns  and  names  of  rivers  ; 

2.  In  biiris^  cucumis,  rdvis,  sitis,  tussis,  vis  j 

3.  In  adverbs  in  tim  (being  accusative  of  nouns  in  tis),  as 
partimj  and  in  amussim. 

b.  The  accusative  in  im  is  sometimes  found  \n  febris,  restis, 
turris,  secilris,  sementis,  and  (in  a  few  passages)  in  many  other  words. 

57.  The  regular  form  of  the  ablative  singular  would  be 
i:  as  of  sitis,  siti ;  but  in  most  nouns  this  is  changed  to  e. 

a.  The  ablative  in  i  is  found  exclusively  — 

1.  In  nouns  having  the  accusative  in  im  (56)  ;  also  securisj 

2.  In  the  following  adjectives  used  as  nouns  :  aeqtidlis,  anndlis, 
aqudlis,  consuldris,  getttllis,  moldris,  prlmipildris,  tribulis  j 

3.  In  neuters  (nominative  in  e,  al,  ar)\  except  baccar,  Jubar, 
and  sometimes  (in  verse)  fnare,  rete. 

b.  The  ablative  in  i  is  sometimes  found  — 

1.  In  avis,  cldvis,  febris,  finis,  ignis, ^  imber,  ndvis,  ovis^ 
pelvis,  sementis,  strigilis,  turris. 

2.  In  the  following  adjectives  used  as  nouns  :  affinis,  bipennis^ 
candlis,  familidris,  natdlis,  rivdlis,  sapiens,  triretnis,  vocdlis. 

c.  The  ablative  of  fames  is  always  fame.  The  defective  mane 
has  sometimes  ablative  mani  (probably  locative). 

d.  Most  names  of  towns  in  e,  —  as  Praeneste^  Caere^  —  and 
Soracte,  a  mountain,  have  the  ablative  in  e. 

58.  The  regular  nominative  plural  would  be  is,  but  this  is  rarely 
found.  The  regular  accusative  is  is  common,  but  not  exclusively 
used  in  any  word.     An  old  form  for  both  cases  is  eis  (diphthong). 

59.  The  following  have  um  (not  ium)  in  the  genitive  plural : 
canis,  juvenis  (original  consonant-stems) ;  ambages,  volucrisj  also 
(sometimes)  apis,  caedes,  clddes,  vtensis,  sides,  strues^  suboles,  v&tes^ 
and  (very  rarely)  patrials  in  ds,  dtis ;  is,  itis. 

6.  — Peculiar   Forms. 

60.  In  many  nouns  the  stem  is  variously  modified  in 
the  nominative  or  other  cases.     Thus  — 

a.  The  vowel-stems  gni-,  su-,  add  a  in  the  nominative,  and  are 
inflected  like  mute-stems  :  grUs  has  also  a  nominative  gruisj  siis 
has  both  suibus  and  subiis  in  the  dative  and  ablative  plural. 

*  Always  a^A  et  igni  inttrdfci. 


Third  Declension :    Greek  Forms, 


25 


^.  In  bov-  (bou-)  the  diphthong  ou  becomes  5  {bos^  bovis). 
In  nav-  (nau-)  an  i  is  added  {ndvis,  is).  In  J6v-  (=  Zeus)  the 
diphthong  becomes  u  in  Ju-piter  {pater),  gen.  Jovis,  &c. 

c.  \n  iter,  itineris  (n.),  jecur,  jecinoris  (n.),  supellex,  supellec- 
tilis  (F.),  the  nominative  has  been  formed  from  a  shorter  stem  ;  so 
that  these  words  show  a  combination  of  two  distinct  forms.  The 
shorter  form  is  found  in  jecor-is. 

d.  Of  the  many  original  s-stems,  only  vds,  vdsis  (n.  pi.  vasa^ 
jrum),  retains  its  proper  form  in  the  nominative  (see  48.  d). 

^61.  Some  peculiar  forms  are  thus  declined  — 


Sing. 

ox,  c 

old  man,  u 

.  yiesh,  F. 

bone,  N. 

force,  F. 

swine,  c 

N.,  V. 

bos 

sSnex 

caro 

ds 

vis 

sus 

Gen. 

be  vis 

senis 

carnis 

osbis 

vis  (rare) 

suis 

DAT. 

bovi 

seni 

C9.rni 

ossi 

sui 

Ace. 

bovem 

senem 

camem 

OS 

vim 

suem 

Abl. 

bove 

sene 

came 

osse 

vi 

sue 

Plur. 

cattle. 

strength. 

N.,A.,  V. 

boves 

senes 

carnes 

ossa 

Vires 

sues 

Gen. 

bourn 

senum 

camium 

ossium 

virium 

suum 

DAT.,  Abl 

.  bobus 

senibus 

carnibus 

ossibus  viribus 

siibus 

(bubus) 

(suibus) 

62.  The  Locative  form  for  nouns  of  the  third  declension  ends 
indifferently  like  the  dative  or  ablative  :  as,  ruri,  in  the  country j 
Carthagini  or  Carthagiiie,  at  Carthage  j  Tredlibus,  at  Tralles. 
The  singular  form  in  g  appears  to  have  been  first  used  in  poetry. 

6.  — Greek   FormSo 

63.  Many  nouns  originally  Greek  —  mostly  proper 
names  —  retain  Greek  forms  of  inflection. 

a.  Stems  in  in-  (i  long)  :  delphinus,  i  (m.),  has  also  the  form 
delphin,  inis ;  Salamis,  is  (f.),  has  ace.  Salamina.  Phorcys  has 
gen.  Phorcyos  and  Phorcydos. 

b.  Most  stems  in  id-  (nom.  is)  often  have  also  the  forms  of 
i-stems  :  as,  tigris,  idis  (idos)  or  is  :  ace.  idem  (ida)  or  im  (in)  ; 
abl.  ide  or  i.  But  many,  including  most  feminine  proper  names, 
have  ace.  idem  (ida),  abl.  ide,  —  not  im  and  i.  (These  follow  the 
forms  in  Greek,  which  depend  on  the  place  of  the  accent^ 

c.  Stems  in  6n-  sometimes  retain  n :  as,  Agamemnon  (or 
Agamemino),  5nis,  accusative  ona. 

d.  Stems  in  ont-  form  the  nom.  in  on  :  as,  horizon,  Xenophon ; 
but  a  few  are  occasionally  latinized  into  on-  (nominative  o)  •  as 
Draco,  onia. 


26 


Etyrnoilogy :   Declension  of  Nouns. 


e.  Stems  in  ant-,  ent-,  have  nom.  in  as,  fe  :  as,  ad^mas,  antis; 
Simols,  entis.  So  a  few  in  unt-  (contracted  from  oent-)  have  us; 
as,  Trapezus,  untis.  Occasionally  the  Latin  form  of  nominative  is 
also  found  :  as,  Atlans,  elephans. 

f.  Case  Forms.  —  Many  Greek  nouns  (especially  in  the  poets) 
have  gen.  68,  ace.  a ;  plur.  nom.  Ss,  ace.  ^  :  as,  aer,  aether,  crater, 
heros  (ois),  lampaa  (adis  or  ados),  lynx  (cis  or  cSs),  naXs  (idos), 
Orpheus  (eos  :  see  43). 

g.  A  few  in  ys  have  ace.  yn,  voc.  y ;  abl.  ye  :  as,  chelys,  yn,  y ; 
Capys,  yos,  yi,  yn,  y,  ye. 

h.  Several  feminine  names  in  6  have  gen.  sing,  us,  all  the  other 
cases  ending  in  6 ;  they  may  also  have  regular  forms :  as,  Dido, 
gen.  Didonis  or  Didus  ;  dat.  Didoni  or  Dido,  &c. 

64.  Some  of  these  forms  are  seen  in  the  following 
examples :  — 


Slngr. 

hero^  M. 

torch,  F. 

base,  F.              tiger,  c. 

naiad,  F.     lyre,  f. 

N.,  V. 

heros 

lampas 

basis             tigris 

nais         chelys 

Gen. 

herois 

lampados 

baseos           tigris  (idos) 

nilidnn 

DAT. 

heroi 

lampadi 

basi                tigri 

naidi        

Ace. 

heroa 

lampada 

basin             tigrin  (ida) 

naida       chelyn 

Abl. 

heros 

lampade 

basi               tigri  (ide) 

naide  V.  chely 

Plur. 

N.  V. 

herogs 

lampadgs 

bases            tigres 

naides 

Gbn. 

heroum 

lampadum 

basium(eon)tigrium 

naidum 

D., Abl.  heroism  lampadibus 

basibus         tigribus 

naidibus 

Ace. 

hero&s 

lampad&s 

basis  (eis)     tigris  id&s) 

PROPER     NAMES. 

naid&s 

Nom. 

Atlas 

Dido 

Simois             Capys 

Daphnis 

Gen. 

Atlantis 

Didonis  (us)       Simoentis       Capyos       Daphnidis 

DAT. 

Atianti 

Didoni  (6) 

Simoenta         Capyi 

Daphnidi 

Aec. 

Atlanta 

Didonem(6)        Simoenta        Capyn 

Daphnim  (in) 

Voe. 

AUas 

Dido 

Simois             Capy 

DaphnI 

Abl. 

Atlanta 

Did6ne(6) 

Simoente        Capye 

Daphni 

Note.  —  The  regular  Latin  forms  can  be  used  for  most  of  tlie  abov«. 
7.  — Rules    of  Gender. 

65.  The  following  are  general  Rules  of  Gender  of 
nouns  of  the  third  declension,  classed  according  to  the 
termination  of  the  nominative} 


1  Rules  of  Gender  are  mostly  only  rules  of  memory,  as  there  is  no  necessary 
connection  between  the  form  and  gender.  But  the  preference  of  masculine  and 
feminine  (especially  feminine)  for  long  vowels  cannot  be  accidental  (compare  long 
A  of  1st  declension).  Some  affixes  also  prefer  one  or  another  gender:  as,  tor 
(originally  tar),  masculine ;  ti,  feminine;  men  (originally  man),  muter. 


Third  Declension :   Rules  of  Gender.  27 

a.  Masculine  endings  are  o,  or,  os,  er,  gs  (gen.  idis,  Xtis). 

b.  Feminine  endings  are  as  (atis),  es  (is),  is,  ys,  x,  s  (following 
a  consonant)  ;  also,  do,  go  (inis),  io  (abstract  and  collective),  and 
us  (udis,  utis). 

c.  Neuter  endings  are  a,  e,  i,  y ;  c,  1,  t ;  men  (minis)  ;  ar,  ur, 
us  (6ris,  6ris) . 

66.  The  following  are  general  Rules  of  Gender  of 
nouns  of  the  third  declension,  classed  according  to  their 
stems, 

a.  Vowel  Stems.  —  Stems  in  i-,  having  s  in  the  nominative,  are 
Feminine,  except  those  mentioned  below  {(i^^  a).  Those  having 
nominative  in  g,  or  which  drop  the  e,  are  neuter. 

b.  Liquid  Stems.  —  Stems  in  1-  are  Masculine,  except  j//, /^/, 
mel^  and  sometimes  sal  (n.).  Those  in  min-  are  Neuter,  except 
homo^  nemo,  fidtnen  (m.).  Others  in  in-  are  Mascuhne,  except 
pollen,  unguen  (n.).  Those  in  en-  are  Masculine.  Those  in 
din-,  gin-,  ion-  (abstract  and  collective)  are  Feminine.  Others  in 
on-,  with  cardo,  margo,  ordo,  unto,  senio,  quaternio,  are  Mascu- 
line. Those  in  r  preceded  by  a  short  vowel  are  Neuter,  except 
about  30  given  below.  Those  in  r-  preceded  by  a  long  vowel  are 
Masculine,  except  soror,  uxor,  glos,  telliis,  f.  ;  crus,  Jus,  pus,  rus, 
tus  (in  which  the  long  vowel  is  ohie  to  contraction),  n. 

c.  Labial  Stems  (no  neuters).  —  Stems  in  b  and  m  are  Femin- 
ine, except  chalybs.  Those  in  p  are  chiefly  Masculine  (excep- 
tions below). 

d.  Lingual  Stems.  —  Stems  in  Sd-,  gd-,  id-,  nd-,  tid-,  aud-,  are 
Feminine,  but  vas,  dromas,pes,  quadrupes,  obses,praeses,  lapis  (m.). 
Those  in  at-,  ut-,  are  Feminine,  except  patrials  (as  Arpinds),  with 
penates  and  optimates  (m.).  Those  in  ed-,  et-,  are  Masculine,  except 
merces  and  quies  with  its  compounds  (p.).  Those  in  gt-,  it-,  are  Mas- 
culine, except  abies,  merges,  seges,  teges  (p.),  and  those  which  are 
Common  from  signification.  Those  in  at-  are  Neuter;  those  in 
nt-  various  (see  List)  ;  those  in  It-,  rt-,  Feminine.  (For  a  few 
isolated  forms,  see  List.) 

e.  Palatal  Stems.  —  Stems  in  c  preceded  by  a  consonant  or 
long  vowel  are  feminine,  except  calx,  decunx,  phoenix,  storax, 
vervex,  m.  Those  in  o  preceded  by  a  short  vowel  are  chiefly  Mas- 
cuhne (for  exceptions,  see  List)  ;  those  in  g,  Mascuhne,  except 
\,frux\  lex,  phalatix,  syrinx j  also  nix,  ntvis  (p.) . 


28  Etymology :   Declension  of  Nouns. 

67.  The  following  are  the  Forms  of  Inflection  of 
nouns  of  the  Third  Declension,  classed  according  to 
their  Stems  :  — 

a.  VOWEL-STEMS. 

68,  is: — about  35  nouns  (see  list  51.  tz),  Feminine,  except  tudes^ 

vdtes,  verres,  m. 
i3,  is  :  — about  100  nouns,  chiefly  Feminine. 

Exc.  —  aedtlis,  amnis,  ajiguis,  c,  anndlis,  antes,  assis,  axis, 
dun's,  callis,  C,  candlis,  c,  canis,  c,  cassis,  caulis,  civis,  c,  cl finis, 
c,  collis,  crlnis,  c,  ensis,  fascis,  finis,  c,  foftis,  funis,  c,  fjistis, 
hostis,  c,  ignis,  juvenis,  c,  lades  c,  lares,  manes  (pl.)»  ntensis, 
moldris,  ndtdlis,  orbis,  pdnis,  pedis,  c,  piscis,  postis,  sentis,  c, 
soddlis,  testis,  c,  torris,  unguis,  vectis,  vepres,  c.  (pi.)?  "vermis,  m. 
[Those  marked  c.  are  sometimes  feminine  ;  the  rest  are  masculine.] 
g,  is  :  —  upwards  of  20  nouns,  all  Neuter. 
al,  alia  ;  Sr,  aris  :  —  24  neuter,  with  several  used  only  in  the  plural 

(see  list,  53.  b :  for  those  in  Sr,  Sjris,  see  Liquid  Stems). 
Sr.ris  :  — imber,  linter,  titer,  venter,  —  all  m.  except  linter,  which  is 

commonly  f.     [For  other  apparent  consonant-stems  see  below.] 
Peculiar  :  — grus,  gruis,  f.  ;  rhus,  rhois  (ace.  rhum),  m.  ;  sus, 
suis,  c.  ;  herds,  herois,  m.  ;  misy,yos,  F. ;  oxys,yos,  F. ;  cinnabdri, 
gummi,  sindpi  (indecL),  n.  ;   chelys,  yn,  y,  f.  ;  bos,  bovis^  c. 

b.  LIQUID-STEMS. 

1,  lis :  —  9  nouns.  Masculine,  except  sil,  and  (sometimes)  sal,  n. 

en,  enia:  — \ren\  splen;  hymen  (Jnis),  M. 

6n,  Inia  :  —  10  nouns,  M.,  except /<7//^«,  unguen,  N. 

mgn,  minis  (verbal)  :  — about  60  nouns,  N.  ;  hnif  amen,  m. 

on,  6nia  (Greek)  :  — canon,  daemon,  gnomon,  M. ;  —  aedon,  alcyon, 

ancon,  sindon,  F. 
o,  onis  :  —  about  70  nouns,   all   Masculine  ;    with   many  family 

names,  as  Cicero. 
io,  ionia  (material  objects,  &c.)  :  —  about  30  nouns,  Masculine, 
io,  ionia  (abstract  and  collective)  :— upwards   of    180,  Feminine, 

including  many  rare  verbal  abstracts. 
o,  Inia  :  —  homo,  turbo,  nemo,  Apollo,  M. 
do,  dinia  :  —  nearly  50  nouns.  Feminine  except  cardo,  ordo,  M. 
go,  ginia  :  — about  40  nouns,  Feminine  ;  with  margo,  M.  or  F. 
ar,  5ria  :  — baccar,  jubar,  nectar,  N. ;  lar,  salar,  M. 
8r,  ria :  — accipiter,  frdter,  pater,  M.,  mdter,  f. 
er,  eria  (Greek)  :  —crdter,  halter,  pr ester,  m.,  ver,  N. 


Third  Declension :   Forms  of  Inflection.  29. 

gr,  eris  :  — acipcnser,{aer\  aether^  ^gg^^j  anser,  asser,  aster,  cancer, 
career,  later,  passer,  vesper,  vomer,  m.  ;  —  ?nulier,  f.  ;  —  acer, 
I  cadaver,  cicer,  laver,  papaver,  piper,  siler,  siser,  suber,  tuber, 

tuber,  uber,  verber,  n. 

IS,  eris  :  —  cittis,  cucumis,  pulvis,  vomis,  M. 

6r  (6s),  oris  :  —  nearly    70   nouns   (besides   many   denoting  the 
Agent,  formed  upon  verb-stems),  all  m.,  except  soror,  uxor,  f. 

6r,  6ris  :  — castor,  rhetor,  m.  ;  arbor,  f.  ;  ador,  aequor,  marmor,  N. 

OS,  oris  :  — flos,  mos,  ros,  m.  ;  glos,  f.  ;  os,  N. 

tlr,  6ris:  —  ebur,  femur,  jecur,  robur  (us),  N. 

iir,  iiris :  —  8  m.;  with  guttur,  fulgur,  murmur,  sulfur,  N. 

us,  6ris :  —  20  Neuter  ;  also,  Venus,  f. 

us,  5ris  :  —  14  nouns.  Neuter,  except  lepus,  M. 

us,  uris  ;  — vms,  M. ;  tellus,  f.  ;   crtts,  jus,  pus,  rus,  tus,  N. 
|.       Peculiar  :  —  delphin,  inis;  fur,  filrisj  sanguis  {en),  inis; 
'    senex,  senis,  m.  /  caro,  carnis,  f.  ;  aes,  aerisj  f ar,  f arris j  fel,fel- 

lis;  met,  mellis ;  iter,  itineris ;  jecur,  jecinoris  {Jecoris),  N.  ;  glis, 

gliris,  M. 

C.    LABIAL. 

bs,  bis  :  —  chalybs,  m.  ;  plebs,  trabs,  urbs,  f.  ;  scrobs,  c.  scohs,  F. 
ms,  mis  :  — hie?ns  (often  written  hiemps),  f. 

ps,  pis  :  —  15  nouns,  Masculine,  except  \daps\  merops,  ops,  stips, 
I  F.  ;  forceps,  stirps,  c. 

f  d.   LINGUAL. 

as,  adis  (Greek)  :  — 14  nouns.  Feminine,  except  dramas,  vas,  m. 
es,  edis  :  — cUpes,  hires,  praes,  M.  ;  merces,  f. 
es,  6dis  :  — pes,  quadrupes,  m.  ;  cojupes,  F. 
es,  Idis  :  —  obses,  praeses,  c. 

is,  Idis  :  —  nearly  40  nouns  (mostly  Greek),  F.  ;  lapis,  M. 
OS,  odis  :  —  custos,  c. 

OS,  Otis  :  —  nepos,  M. ;  cos,  dos,  F. ;  sacerdos,  c. 
lis,  udis  :  — incus,  palus,  subscus  :  with/r^«j,  laus,  pedis  (Jidis),  F 
a,  atis  (Greek)  :  —  nearly  20  nouns.  Neuter. 

as,  atis  :  — about  20  (besides  derivatives),  f.  ;  also,  aftas  (dtis),  c. 
es,  etis  :  —  celes,  lebes,  magnes,  m.  ;  quies,  requies,  inquies,  f. 
es,  6tis  :  — aries,  paries,  m.  ;  abies,  seges,  teges,  F. ;  interpres,  c. 
es,  itis  :  —  about  20  nouns,  Masculine  or  Common. 
us,  utis :  — juventus,  salus,  senectus,  servitus,  virtus,  f. 
ns,  ndis  :  — frons,  glans,  juglans,  f. 

ns,  ntis  :  —  nearly  20  (besides  many  participles  used  as  nouns), 
Common  ;  dens,fons,  mons,pons,  m.  ',  frons,  gens,  lens,  mens,  F^ 


30  Etymology :   Declension  of  Notins. 

rs,  rtis  (originally  i-stems)  :  — ars^  cohors^fors^  mors,  sors,  F. 
ya,  fA\B\  B,  ntis  (Greek)  :  —  chlamys,  F.  ;  Atlas,  antis,  m. 

Peculiar  :  — as,  assts,  m.  ;  tts,  litis  j  nox,  7ioctis  j  puis,  pultis, 
F.  ;  caput,  itis ;  cor,  cordis  j  hepar,  atis  j  os,  ossisj  vas,  vasis,  N. ; 
also,  compounds  of  -pus,  -podis,  m.,  Gr.  for  pes  (foot),  lac,  lactis,  n. 

e.   PALATAL. 

ax,  acis :  a?ithrax,  corax,  frax  (pL),  panax,   scolopax,  m.  ;  fax^ 

sty  rax  {storax),  F. 
ax,  acis :  —  cfiodax,  cordax,  Umax,  thorax,  m.  ;  pax,  F. 
ex,  ecis  :  — alex,  M.  or  F. ;  vervex,  m. 
ex,  icis  :  —  upwards  of  40  nouns,  Masculine,  except  cdrex,  for/ex, 

flex,  imbrex,  nex  {7i^cis),  pellex,  f. 
ix,  Icis  :  —  appendix,  coxendix,  Jilix,  fornix,  larix,  salix,  struix, 

varix,  f. 
ix,  icis  :  — about  30  nouns,  Feminine  ;  besides  many  in  trix,  regular 

feminines  of  nouns  of  agency  in  tor. 
ox,  ocia  :  —  celox,  vox,  F. 
ux,  ucis :  —  diix,  c.  ;  crux,  nux,  F. 
iix,  ucis  :  —  balux,  lux,  f. 

X,  cis :  — arx,  calx,falx,  lynx,  merx  (def.),  F.  ;  calyx,  calx,  M. 
X,  gis  :  —  conjux  (nx),  grex,  remex,  rex,  m.  or  c. ;  frux  (def.),  lex, 

phalanx,  F.,  with  a  few  rare  names  of  animals. 
Other  nouns  in  x  are  nix,  nivis ;  nox,  noctis  j  supellex,  ectilis,  F. ; 

onyx,  ychis,  M. 


FOURTH     DECLENSION. 

Note.  —  The  Stem  of  nouns  of  the  Fourth  Declension  ends  in 
u.  This  is  usually  weakened  to  i  before  -bus.  Masculine  and 
feminine  nouns  form  the  nominative  by  adding  8 ;  neuters  have 
for  nominative  the  simple  stem,  but  with  ii  (long). 

68.  Nouns  of  the  Fourth  Declension  are  declined  as 
follows :  — 

knee  (n.). 

genu 

genu  (lis) 

genu 

genu 

genu 

genQ 


Sing. 

hand  {t.). 

lake  (m.). 

NOM. 

manua 

lacus 

Gen. 

manus 

lacus 

DAT. 

manui 

lacui 

Ace. 

manum 

lacum 

Voc. 

mantw 

lacna 

Abl. 

manii 

lacil 

Fourth  Declension.  31 


Plur. 

NOM. 

manus 

lacus 

genua 

Gen. 

manuum 

lacuum 

genuum 

DAT. 

manibus 

lacubus 

genibus 

Ace. 

manus 

lacus 

genua 

Voc. 

manuB 

lacus 

genua 

Abl. 

manibus 

lacubus 

genibus 

Note.  —  The  Genitive  singular  is  contracted  from  the  old  form 
in  uis.     The  Dative  Singular  is  also  found  contracted  to  u. 

69.  Gender.  —  a.  Most  nouns  in  us  are  Masculine.  The 
following  are  Feminine  :  — acus^  anus,  colus,  domus,  idus  (pi.), 
manus,  nurus,  porticus,  quinqudtrus,  socrus,  tribus,  with  a  few 
names  of  plants  and"l:rees.     Also,  rarely,  arcus,  penus,  specus. 

b.  The  only  neuters  are  cornu,  genu,  pecu  (def.),  veru.^ 

70.  Case-Forms. —«.  A  genitive  in^os^  (an  earlier  form)  is 
sometimes  found  :  as,  senatuos j  and  an  old  (irregular)  genitive  in 
1  is  used  by  some  writers. 

b.  The  nominative  plural  has  rarely  the  form  uus. 

c.  The  genitive  plural  is  sometimes  contracted  into  um. 

d.  The  following  retain  the  regular  dative  and  ablative  plural 
in  iibus :  artus,  partus,  partus,  tribus,  veruj  also  dissyllables  in 
-cus,  as  lacus  (but  sometimes /^r/Z^j",  veribus^. 

e.  Most  names  of  plants,  and  colus,  distaff,  have  also  forms  of 
the  second  declension. 

f.  Domus,  house,  has  two  stems,  ending  in  u  and  o,  and  is 
declined  as  follows  :  ^  — 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

NoM.  domus  domus 

Gen.  domus  (domi,  loc.)...  domuum  (domorum) 

DAT.  domui  (dome)  domibus 

Ace.  domum  domos  (domus) 

Voc.  domus  domus 

Abl.  domo  (domu)  domibus 

71.  Most  nouns  of  the  fourth  declension  are  formed  from  verb- 
stems,  with  the  suffix  -tus  (sus)  :  as,  cantus,  song,  from  cano, 
sing;  casus  (for  cad- tus),  chance,  from  cado,  fall;  exsulatus, 
exile,  from  exsulo,  to  be  an  exile  (exsul).  Many  are  formed 
either  from  verb-stems  not  in  use,  or  by  false  analogy  :  as,  con- 
suldtus,  sendtus,  incestus. 

1  Some  others  are  mentioned  by  grammarians,  and  the  form  ossua,  as  from 
ossu^  occurs  in  inscriptions. 

2  The  forms  in  parenthesis  are  less  common.  The  form  domt  is  regularly 
locative,. genitive  only  in  Plautus  ;  domut  is  also  locative ;  domorum  is  poetic. 


32 


Etymology :   Declension  of  Notms, 


a.  The  Supines  of  verbs  are  the  accusative  and  ablative  (or 
dative,  perhaps  both)  of  derivatives  in  tus  (sus)  :  as,  auditum, 
memordtu. 

b.  Of  many  only  the  ablative  is  used  as  a  noun :  as,  jussu 
(meo),  by  my  comtnand;  so  injussu  (populi),  without  the 
people's  order.     Of  some  only  the  dative  :  as,  memordtui^  divisui. 


FIFTH    DECLEN6I0N. 

Note.  —  The  Stem  of  nouns  of  the  Fifth  Declension  ends  in  e, 
which  appears  in  all  the  cases.  The  nominative  is  formed  from 
the  stem  by  adding  s. 

N/'72.    Nouns   of   the   Fifth    Declension    are    thus    de- 
clined :  — 


SING,  thing  ( 

F.)  PLUR. 

SING,  day  (m. 

)  PLUR. 

faith  (f.) 

NOM. 

res 

res 

dies 

dies 

fides 

Gen. 

rgP 

rerum 

diei  (die) 

dierum 

fidgi 

DAT. 

rSi 

rebus 

diei (die) 

diebus 

fidgi 

Ace. 

rem 

res 

diem 

dies 

fidem 

Voc. 

res 

res 

dies 

dies 

fides 

Abl. 

re 

rebus 

die 

diebus 

fide 

73.  Gender.  —  All  nouns  of  this  declension  are  feminine,  ex- 
cept dies  (usually  m.),  and  meridies  (m.).  Dies  is  sometimes 
feminine  in  the  singular,  especially  in  phrases  indicating  a  fixed 
time,  or  time  in  general :  as,  longa  dies,  co7istitutd  die;  also  in  the 
poets  :  as,  pulcra  dies. 

74.  Case- Forms. — a.  The  genitive  singular  anciently  ended  in 
ea  (of.  as  of  first  declension)  ;  and  ei  was  sometimes  contracted 
into  i  or  e,  as  in  dii  {JEn.  i.  676),  and  in  the  phrase  plebi-scitnm 
(Fr.  pUbiscite^.     An  old  dative  in  i  or  e  also  occurs. 

b.  Several  nouns  ot  the  fifth  declension  have  also  forms  of  the 
first,  of  which  this  is  only  a  variety :  as,  materia,  -ies,  saevitia,  -ies.^ 
The  genitive  and  dative  in  51  are  rarely  found  in  these  words. 

'  The  e  has  been  shortened  in  the  gen.  and  dat.  singular  in  fides,  sj>es,  res. 

2  Nouns  in  ies  (except  dies)  are  original  A-stems.  The  others  are  probably 
(excepting  res)  corrupted  s-stems,  like  moles,  moles-tus ;  dies,  diurnus;  sj>es, 
spero.  Some  vary  between  this  and  the  third  declension  :  as,  requies,  saties 
(sa/ias,  atis\  plebes  {plebs,  pl'ebis),  fame  {fames,  is) ;  with  others,  as  saties  (for 
sati^as),  &c. 


Fifth  Declension ;    Defective  Nouns.  33 

c.  The  Locative  form  of  this  declension  is  represented  by  -e,  as 
in  hodie,  to-day j  perendie,  day-after-to-morrow ;  die  quarto 
(antiquated  quarti),  the  fourth  day  j  pridie,  the  day  before. 
-y  d.  The  only  nouns  of  this  declension  complete  in  all  their 
/parts  are  dies  and  res.  Most  want  the  plural,  which  is,  how- 
ever, found  in  the  nominative  and  accusative  in  the  following: 
acies^  effigies^  eluvies,  fades ^  glacies,  series,  species,  s^es.^ 

Defective   Nouns. 

75.  Some  nouns  are  ordinarily  found  in  the  Singular 
number  only.     These  are  — 

1.  Proper  names  :  as,  Caesar,  Ccesar j  Gallia,  Gaul. 

2.  Names  of  things  not  counted,  but  reckoned  in  mass  {con- 
tinud)  :  as,  ^wxvlvsx,  gold ;  far,  corn;  aer,  air. 

3.  Abstract  nouns  :  as,  ambitio,  ambition;  fortitude,  courage; 
calor,  heat. 

But  many  of  these  can  be  used  in  the  plural  in  some 
other  sense.     Thus  — 

a.  A  proper  name  may  be  apphed  to  two  or  more  persons  or 
places,  and  so  becomes  strictly  common  :  as,  duodecim  Caesares, 
the  twelve  Ccesars ;  Galliae,  the  two  Gauls  (Cis-  and  Trans-alpine) ; 
Cast5res,  Castor  and  Pollux ;  Joves,  linages  of  Jupiter. 

b.  Particular  objects  or  kinds  of  a  thing  may  be  denoted  :  as, 
aera,  brazen  utensils ;  nives,  snow-flakes ;  calores,  frigora,  times 
of  heat  and  cold. 

c.  The  plural  of  Abstract  nouns  denotes  occasions  or  instances 
of  the  quality,  or  the  like  :  as,  quaedam  excellentiae,  some  cases 
of  superiority ;  0^9.,  periods  of  rest. 

76.  Some  are  commonly  found  only  in  the  Plural :  — 

1.  Many  proper  names,  including  names  of  Festivals  and 
Games  :  as,  Bacchanalia,  y^j-ZzW/^?/"  Bacchtis ;  Quinquatrils,  fes- 
tival of  Minerva ;  ludi  Romani,  the  Roman  Gaines. 

2.  Names  of  Classes  :  as,  optimates,  the  upper  classes;  ma- 
\bies,  ancestors ;  Yibexi,  children  ;  -ge-aSLtes,  household  gods. 

3.  Words  plural  from  signification  :  as,  arma,  weapons ;  artiis, 
joints;  divitiae,  riches;  scalae,  stairs;  valvae,  folding-doors ; 
fores,  door-way. 

1  The  forms  facierum,  specierum,  speciebus,  sperum,  spebus,  are  cited ;  also 
spheres,  speribus. 

3 


34  Etymology :    Declension  of  Noufis, 

These  often  have  a  corresponding  singular  in  some 
form  or  other,  as  nouns  or  adjectives  :  — 

a.  As  nouns,  to  denote  a  single  object :  as,  Bacchanal,  a  spot 
sacred  to  Bacchus;  optimas,  an  aristocrat. 

b.  As  adjectives  :  as,  Cato  Major,  Cato  the  Elder. 

c.  In  a  sense  rare  or  obsolete :  as  scala,  a  ladder  j  valva, 
a  door;  ^xtviB,  a  joint  (Lucan). 

77.  The  following  are  defective  in  Case-Forms  :  — 

1.  Indeclinable  nouns  :  fas,  nefds,  instar,  necesse,  nihil,  opus 
("  need  "),  secus. 

2.  Nouns  found  in  one  case  only  (monoptotes) :  glos  (f.), 
infitias  (f.),  mane  (n.  nom.,  ace,  and  abl.),  nauci  (n.),  pondo 
(n.),  suppetids  (f.),  dtcis  (gen.). 

3.  In  two  cases  only  {diptotes)  :  astus,  u  {u.),dicam,  as  (f.), 
foras,  ts  {¥.),  f or s,  forte  (f.),  spontis,  e  (f.),  venui,  urn  (m.). 

4.  In  three  cases  {trip totes)  :  grdtiae,  as,  Is  (f.),  impetus,  urn, 
il  {M..),jugera,  um,  ibus  (n.),  lues,  em,  e  (f.). 

5.  The  following  are  defective  only  in  the  singular:  ambdge 
{¥.),  fauce  (f.),  obice  (m.  or  f.,  nom.  rare),  cassefn,  e  {m.),  precem, 
i,  e  (f.),  sordem,  e  (f.),  opis,  em,  e  (dat.  fare),  dapis,  i,  em,  e 
(p.,  nom.  rare),  dicionis,  i,  em,  e  {F.),fn7gis,  i,  em,  e  (f.). 

6.  The  following  are  defective  in  the  plural :  jura,  rura  (n.  nom. 
and  ace.) ;  sentis,  e?n;  es,  ibus  (m.),  vicis,  em,  e;  is,  ibus  (f.).  Cor, 
cos,  fax,  faex,  lux,  nex,  os,  pax,  praes,  ros,  sal,  sol,  tils,  vds,  ver, 
are  not  found  in  the  genitive  plural  (see  also  74.  d;  75). 
Some  other  forms  of  these  words  are  rarely  found. 

Variable   Noons. 

78.  Some  nouns  have  two  or  more  forms  of  Declen- 
sion if leter oolites)}     These  are  — 

Colus,  with  many  names  of  plants  (f.  of  second  or  fourth 
declension)  \  femur,  oris,  or  inis  (n.)  ;  jugerujn,  i  (n.),  abl.  e,  pi. 
a,  um;  Mulciber,  beri,  or  beris  (m.)  ;  mUnus,  munia  ;  pubes, 
eris,  em,  e  (m.)  ;  penus,  i,  or  oris  (n.)  ;  saevitia,  ae;  -ies,  tern; 
-itado,  inis  (f.)  ;  sequester,  tri,  or  tris;  with  many  in  ia  or  lis 
(see  74.  b),  and  a  few  other  rare  forms. 

'  These  variations  often  result  from  tlie  confusion  of  two  stems  from  the  same 
root:  as,  domi  (o-stam),  domul  (w-stem).  Compare  such  words  as  iter,  itineris ; 
j4fur,J4C0ris,  oxjecinoris.     The  gender  is  an  accidental  peculiarity. 


Variable  Nouns. 


35 


79.  Some  nouns  are  found  of  more  than  one  Gender 
{heterogeneotis) . 

a.  The  following  have  a  masculine  form  in  us  and  a  neuter  in 
um :  —  balteus,  caseus,  clipeus,  collum,  jugulufn,  pileus^  tergum, 
vallum,  with  many  others  of  rare  occurrence. 

b.  The  following  have  the  plural  in  a  different  gender  from  the 
singular :  — balneum  (n.),  balneae  (f.)  ;  caelum  (n.),  caelos  (m.  ace.) ; 
carbasus  (f.),  carbasa,  orum  (n.),  delictum  (n.),  deliciae  (f.)  ; 
epulum  (n.),  epulae  (f.)  ;  frenum  (n.),  freni  (m.  or  frena,  N.)  ; 
jocus  {u.),joca  (n.  or  J oci,  m.)  ;  rastrum  (n.),  rastri  (m.)  ;  /(C?^«j 
(m.),  /^^^  (n.  :  loci,  M..  is  usually  /^/zVj-  or  detached  spots). 

c.  Many  nouns  vary  in  meaning  as  they  are  found  in  the 
singular  or  plural :  as, 

aedes,  ium,  house. 

aquae,  a  watering-place. 

auxilia,  auxiliaries. 

bona,  property. 

carceres,  barriers  (of  race-course). 

castra,  camp. 

codicilli,  tablets. 


aedes,  is  (f.),  te?nplej 
aqua  (f.),  water; 
auxilium  (n.),  help; 
bonum  (n.),  a  good; 
career  (m.),  dungeon; 
castrum  {^.),fort; 
codicillus  (m.),  bit  of  wood; 


co\m\xvim{ii.),  place  of  asse7nbly  ;  comitia,  a  political  assembly. 


copia  (y.),  plenty; 
fides  (f.),  harp-string; 
finis  (m.),  end; 
fortuna  (¥.),  fortune; 
gratia  (¥.'),  favor; 
hortus  (m.),  a  garden; 
impedlmentum  (n.),  hinderance; 
littera  (f.),  letter  (of  alphabet) ; 
locus  (m.),  place  [pi.  loca  (n.)]  ; 

Indus  (m.),  sport; 

natalis  (m.),  birthday; 

opera  (f.),  task; 

opis  (f.  gen.),  help; 

pars  (f.),  apart; 

plaga  (f.),  region  [plaga,  blow"]  ; 

r5strum  (n.),  beak  of  a  ship ; 

sal  (m.  or  N.),  salt; 

tabella  (f.),  tablet; 


copiae,  troops. 
fides,  lyre. 

fines,  bounds,  territories. 
fortijnae,  possessions. 
gratiae,  thanks. 
horti,  pleasure-grounds. 
impedimenta,  baggage. 
litterae,  epistle. 

loci,  passages  in  books.     (In  early 
writers  this  is  the  regular  plur.). 
ludi,  public  games. 
natales,  descent. 

operae,  day-laborers  ("hands  "). 
opes,  resources,  wealth. 
partes,  part  (on  the  stage), /^r/y. 
plagae,  snares. 
rostra,  speaker* s  platform. 
sales,  witticisms. 
tabellae,  documents. 


36  Etymology:   Proper  Names, 

flestertius  (m.)  means  the  sum  of  2^  asses,  =  about  5  cents. 

sestertium  (n.)  means  the  sum  of  1000  sestertii,  =  about  $50. 

decies  sestertiuin  (sc.  centena  fnillid)  means  the  sum  of  1000 
sestertia,  =  $50,000  (nearly). 

d.  Sometimes  a  noun  in  combination  with  an  adjective  takes  a 
special  signification,  both  parts  being  regularly  inflected  :  as,  jus- 
jurandum,  jurisjurandi,  oaih;  respublica,  reipublicae,  co?mnon- 
wealth. 

Proper   Names. 

80.  A  Roman  had  regularly  three  names,  denoting 
the  person,  the  gens,  and  the  family. 

a.  Thus,  in  the  name  Marcus  Tullius  Cicero,  we  have  Marcus, 
the  prcsnomen,  or  personal  name  ;  Tullius,  the  nomen  (properly 
an  adjective),  i.e.  the  name  of  the  Gens,  or  house,  whose  original 
head  was  Tullus  ;  Cicero,  the  cognomen,  or  family  name,  often 
in  its  origin  a  nickname,  —  in  this  case  from  cicer,  a  vetch,  or 
small  pea. 

b.  A  fourth  or  fifth  name,  called  the  agnomen,  was  sometimes 
given.  Thus  the  complete  name  of  Scipio  the  Younger  was 
Publius  Cornelius  Scipio  Africdnus  ^milidnus ;  Africdnus,  from 
his  exploits  in  Africa ;  ^milidnus,  as  adopted  from  the  iCmilian 
gens. 

c.  Women  had  no  personal  names,  but  were  known  only  by  that 
of  their  Gens.  Thus,  the  wife  of  Cicero  was  Terentia,  and  his 
daughter  Tullia.  A  younger  sister  would  have  been  called  Tullia 
secunda  or  minor,  and  so  on. 

d.  The  commonest  praenomens  are  thus  abbreviated :  — 

A.  Aulus.  L.  Lucius.  Q.  Quintus. 

C.  (G.)  Gaius  {Caius).  M.  Marcus.  Sen  Servius. 
Cn.  (Gn.)  Gnaeus  {Cneius).  M'.  Manius.  Sex.  Sextus. 

D.  Decimus.  Mam.  Mamercus.  Sp.  Spurius. 
K.  Kkso.  N.  Numerius.  T.  Titus. 
App.  Appius.  P.  PubUus.  Ti.  Tiberius. 

e.  A  feminine  praenomen  is  sometimes  abbreviated  with  an 
inverted  letter:  as,  3  for  Caia  or  Gaia. 


hiflection  of  Adjectives, 


37 


Chapter  IV.  —  Adjectives. 

INFLECTION. 

Note.  —  Adjectives  and  Participles  are  in  general  formed  and 
declined  like  Nouns,  differing  from  nouns  only  in  their  use.  In 
accordance  with  their  use,  they  distinguish  gender  by  different 
forms  in  the  same  word,  corresponding  with  their  nouns  in  gender, 
number,  and  case.  They  are  (i)  of  the  First  and  Second  Declen- 
sions, or  (2)  of  the  Third  Declension.^ 

y^  1.  —  First  and  Second  Declensions. 

81.  Adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  declensions 
(o-stems)  have  the  feminine  in  a;  they  are  decHned  Uke 
servus  (m.),  stella  (f.),  bellum,  (n.)  :  as, 


Sing. 

MASC. 

FEM. 

NEUT. 

NOM. 

bonus 

bona 

\iorvxva.,  good. 

Gen. 

boni 

bonae 

boni 

DAT. 

bono 

bonae 

bono 

Ace. 

bonum 

bonam 

bonum 

Voc. 

bonS 

bona 

bonum 

Abl. 

bono 

bona 

bono 

Plur. 

NOM. 

boni 

bonae 

bona 

Gen. 

bonomm 

bonarum 

bonorum 

DAT. 

bonis 

bonis 

bonis 

Ace. 

bonos 

bonas 

bona 

Voc. 

boni 

bonae 

bona 

Abl. 

bonis 

bonis 

bonis 

a.  The  masculine,  genitive  of  adjectives  in  ius  ends  in  11,  and 
the  vocative  in  ie;  not  in  1  as  in  nouns  :  as,  Lacedae7nonius,  it,  ie. 
But  the  possessive  mens,  my,  has  the  vocative  masculine  mi. 

b.  Adverbs  are  formed  from  adjectives  of  this  form  by  changing 
the  case-ending  to  e  :  as,  vallde,  strongly  (from  valldus) ;  mlsere, 
wretchedly  (from  miser  :  see  82). 

1  Most  Latin  adjectives  and  participles  are  either  o-stems  with  the  cor- 
responding feminine  fl-stems  (originally  a  and  a),  or  /-stems.  Many,  however, 
were  originally  stems  in  m  or  a  consonant,  which  passed  over,  in  all  or  most  of 
their  cases,  into  the  z-declension,  for  which  Latin  had  a  special  fondness.  (Com- 
pare the  endings  es  and  Is  of  the  third  declension  with  the  Greek  e?  and  as  ;  ndvis 
(nominative)  with  the  Greek  vaOs ;  /Spaxu's  with  brevis ;  cornu  with  bicornis ; 
lingua  with  bilingtiis ;  cor,  corde,  corda,  with  discors,  -di,  -dia,  -diutn;  sudvis 
with  176VS ;  f evens,  -entia,  with  ^i^mv,  -ovra. )  A  few,  which  in  other  languages 
are  nouns,  retain  the  consonant-form  :  as,  vetus  =  eros.  Comparatives  also  retain 
the  consonant  form  in  most  of  their  cases. 


38 


Etymology  :  Adjectives. 


82.  In  adjectives  of  stems  ending  in  ro-  preceded  by  6  or  a 
consonant  (also  satur),  the  masculine  nominative  is  formed  like 
that  of  ro-  stems  of  the  second  declension  {zLpuer^  ager)  :  as, 


Sing. 

N.     miser 
G.     miseri 
D.     misero 
Ac.    miserum 
V.     miser 
Ab.  misero 
Plur. 
N.     miseri 


Miser,  wretched. 

misera  miserum 

miserae  miseri 

miserae  misero 

miseram  miserum 

misera  miserum 

misera  misero 


Niger,  black. 

niger 

nigra 

nigrum 

nigri 

nigrae 

nigri 

nigro 

nigrae 

nigrd 

nigrum 

nigram 

nigrum 

niger 

nigra 

nigrum 

nigro 

nigra 

nigro 

nign 


nigrae        nigra 


miserae        misera 

G.     miserorum  miserarum  miserorum  nigrorum  nigrarum  nigrorum 

D.     miseris         miseris         miseris  nigris         nigris         nigris 

Ac.   miseros        miseras        misera  nigros        nigras        nigra 

V.     miseri  miserae        misera  nigri  nigrae        nigra 

Ab.  miseris         miseris         miseris  nigris         nigris        nigris 

a.  Stems  in  ero  (as  procerus)^  with  morig^rus,  propHrus^ 
pqst^rus,  have  the  regular  nominative  in  us. 
^  b.  Like  miser  are  declined  asper,  gibber^  lacer,  liber,  miser, 
prosper  {ems),  satur  {ura,  urum),  tener,  with  compounds  of  -ifer  and 
-ger;  also,  usually,  dexter.  In  these  the  e  belongs  to  the  stem; 
but  in  dexter  it  is  often  syncopated  :  dextra,  dextrum. 
y  c.  Like  niger  are  declined  aeger,  dter,  creber,  faber,  glaber, 
integer,  ludicer,  macer,  niger,  noster,  piger,  pulcher,  ruber,  sacer, 
scaber,  sinister,  teter,  vafer,  vester. 

d.  The  following  feminines  lack  a  masculine  singular  nomina- 
tive in  classic  use  :  — cetera,  infera,  postera,  supera.  They  are 
rarely  found  in  the  singular  except  in  certain  phrases  :  as,  postero 
die.  A  feminine  ablative  in  o  is  found  in  a  few  Greek  adjectives, 
as  lecticA  octophdro  (Verr.  v.  1 1). 

^/83.  The  following  (o-stems)  with  their  compounds  have  the 
genitive  singular  in  ius  and  the  dative  in  i  in  all  the  genders :  — 
aiiuB  (n.  aliud),  other,     totus,  whole,    alter,'  other  (of  two). 
nuUus,  none.  uUus,  any.        neuter,-  triuB,  neither. 

Bolus,  alo7ie.  unus,  one.         titer,-  trius,  which  (of  two). 


'  The  suffix  TER,  in  alter,  uter,  neuter,  is  the  same  as  the  Greek  comparative 
suffix  -Tepo(«).  The  stem  of  alius  appears  in  early  Latin  and  in  derivatives  as 
AL1-,  in  the  forms  alls,  alid  (for  aliud),  aliter,  &c.  The  regular  forms  of  the 
genitive  and  dative  are  also  found  in  early  writers.  Instead  of  a^us  (genitive), 
alterius  is  commonly  used,  or  (for  the  possessive)  the  adjective  alienus. 

These  words,  in  Greek  and  Sanskrit,  are  treated  as  pronouns,  which  accords 
with  tht  pronominal  forms  of  the  genitive  in  ms,  the  dative  in  i,  and  the  neuter 


Inflection  of  Adjectives, 


39 


a.  Of  these  the  singular  is  thus  declined :  — 


M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

NOM. 

unus 

una 

VJrmTTi 

uter 

utra 

utrum 

Gen. 

iinius 

finius 

unius 

utrius 

utrius 

utrius 

DAT. 

uni 

uni 

uni 

utri 

utri 

utri 

Ace. 

unum 

linam 

unum 

utrum 

utram 

utrum 

Abl. 

uno 

una 

iino 

utro 

utra 

utro 

NoM. 

alius 

alia 

aUud 

alter 

altera 

alterum 

Gen. 

alivLS 

alius 

alius 

alterius 

alterius 

alterius 

DAT. 

alii 

alii 

alii 

alteri 

alteri 

alteri 

Ace. 

alium 

aliam 

aliud 

alterum 

alteram 

alterum 

Abu 

ali5 

aUa 

alia 

altera 

altera 

altera 

b.  The  plural  of  these  words  is  regular,  like  that  of  bonus, 
a.  — Third  Declension. 

^^  84.  Adjectives  of  the  third  declension  having  stems 
in  i  —  distinguished  by  being  parisyllabic — have  prop- 
erly no  distinct  form  for  the  feminine,  and  hence  are 
called  adjectives  of  two  terminations.  In  the  neuter  the 
nominative  ends  in  e.     They  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 

Sing.    M.,  F.   light.       N.  M.      keen.    F.  N. 

N.,  V.  ISvis  ISve  acer 


Gen.  levis 

DAT.  levi 

Ace.  levem 

Abl.  levi 

Plur. 

N.,  V.  leves 

Gen.  levium 

DAT.  levibus 

Ace.  leves  (is) 

Abl.  levibus 


levis 
levi 
leve 
levi 


levia 

levium 

levibus 

levia 

levibus 


acris 
acri 
acrem 
acri 


acns 

acris 
acri 
acrem 
acri 


acre 

acris 

acri 

acre 

acri 


acres  acres  acria 

acrium  acrium  acrium 

acribus  acribus  acribus 

acres  (is)  acres  ^s)  acria 

acribus  acribus  acribus 


a.  The  following  stems  in  -ri  have  the  masc.  nom.  in  er :  deer., 
alacer,  campester,  celeber,  equester,  pahlster,  pedester,  puter,  salu- 
ber,  Silvester,  terr ester,  volUcer.  Also,  celer,  ceteris,  cel^rej  and, 
in  certain  phrases,  the  names  of  months  in  -ber  (compare  51.  b). 

Note.  —  This  formation  is  comparatively  late,  and  hence,  in  the  poets,  and  in 
early  Latin,  either  the  masculine  or  the  feminine  form  of  these  adjectives  was  used 
for  both  genders.  In  others,  as  illustris^  lugubris,  mediocris,  muliebris,  there  is 
no  separate  masculine  form. 

d  in  aliud.  The  /  in  the  genitive  -ius,  though  long,  may  be  made  short  in  verse  ; 
and  alterius  is  generally  accented  on  the  antepenult.  In  compounds  —  as  alteruter 
—  sometimes  both  parts  are  declined,  sometimes  only  the  latter. 


40  Etymology:  Adjectives, 

b.  Case-Forms.  These  adjectives,  as  true  i-stems,  retain  i  in 
the  ablative  singular,  the  neuter-plural  ia,  the  genitive  plural  ium, 
and  often  in  the  accusative  plural  ia.  For  metrical  reasons,  an 
ablative  in  e  sometimes  occurs  in  poetry. 

c.  When  celer  is  used  as  an  adjective,  it  has  the  regular  genitive 
plural  in  ium;  as  a  noun,  denoting  a  military  rank,  it  has  celirum; 
as  a  proper  name,  it  has  the  ablative  in  e. 

d.  Adverbs  are  formed  from  adjectives  of  the  third  declension 
with  the  ending  ter  or  iter  :  as,  leviter,  lightly  j  priidenter,  wise- 
ly j  acriter,  eagerly  (see  Chap.  VII). 

85.  The  remaining  adjectives  of  the  third  declension 
(except  comparatives)  are  consonant-stems,  but  have  the 
form  of  i-stems  in  the  ablative  singular  i,  the  plural 
neuter  ia,  and  the  genitive  ium.  In  other  cases  they 
follow  the  rule  of  consonant-stems. 

a.  In  adjectives  of  consonant-stems  (except  comparatives)  the 
nominative  singular  is  alike  for  all  genders  :  hence  they  are  called 
adjectives  of  one  termination?-  Except  in  the  case  of  stems  in  1 
and  r,  it  is  formed  from  the  stem  by  adding  s  (compare  44)  :  as. 


^Sing. 

M.,  F.     fierce.      N. 

M.,  F.      needy,          n. 

N.,  V. 

atroz 

egena 

Gen. 

atrocia 

egenti* 

DAT. 

atroci 

egenti 

Ace. 

atrdcem              atrox 

egentem               egena 

Abl. 

atrdci  or  atroce 

egenti  or  egente 

Plor. 

N.,  V. 

atrdces               atrocia 

egentea               egentia 

Gen. 

atrocium 

egentium 

DAT. 

atrdcibofl 

egentibua 

Ace. 

atrdcea  (ia)          atrdcia 

egentea  (ia)         egentia 

Abl. 

atr5cibii8 

egentibua 

'  The  regular  feminine  of  these  adjectives,  by  analogy  of  cognate  languages, 
would  end  in  ia :  this  form  does  not  appear  in  Latin  adjectives,  but  is  found  in 
the  abstracts  Smeniia,  disidia^  socordia^  6v.,  and  in  proper  names,  as  Fldrcntia 
(cf.  Greek  4>ipovaa  for  ^cpovr-ta).  The  neuter  would  regularly  have  in  the  nomina- 
tive and  accusative  singular  the  simple  stem  as  ca/ut,  cor{d),  allec^  Greek  <^«po»'(t)  ; 
but  in  all  except  liquid  stems,  the  masc.  form  in  s  has  forced  itself  not  only  upon 
the  neuter  nominative,  but  upon  the  accusative  also,  where  it  is  wholly  abnormal. 


Inflection  of  Adjectives.  41 

b.  Other  examples  are  the  following :  — 

^'^'Sing.  '^.^Y. going.    N.  M.,F.  equal,  in.    M.^¥.  headlong.     N. 

N.  V.  iens  par                           praeceps 

Gen.  euntis  paris                       praecipitis 

DAT.  eunti  pari                         praecipiti 

Ace.  euntem      iens  parem    par      praecipitem    praeceps 

Abl.  eunte  (i)  pari                        praecipiti 

Plur. 

N.,A.,V.  euntes    euntia  pares    paria  praecipites    praecipitia 

Gen.             euntium  parium                   praecipitium 

D.,  Abl.       ©untibus  paribus                  praecipitibus 

Sing.               M.,  F.  rich.  N.  M.,  Y.  fertile.    N.      M.,  F.  old.      N. 

N.,  V.               dives  uber                            vetus 

Gen.                 divitis  uberis                          veteris 

Dat.                   diviti  uberi                            veteri 

Ace.    divitem          dives  uberem        uber     veterem          vetus 

Abl.                  divite  ubere                          vetere 

Plur. 

N.jA.jV.  divites        [ditia]  uberes        ubera  veteres        vetera 
Gen.              divitum                         uberum  veterum 

D.,  Abl.        divitibus  uberibus  veteribus 

c.  A  few  of  these  words,  used  as  nouns,  have  a  feminine  form 
in  a :  as,  clienta,  hospita,  with  the  appellative  yuno  Sospita. 


v^ 


3.  —  Comparatives. 

86.  Comparatives  are  declined  as  follows :  — 

M.,  F.    more.    n. 


Sing. 

M.,  F.  better.        n. 

N.,  V. 

melior                melius 

Gen. 

melioris 

DAT. 

meliori 

Ace. 

meliorem            melius 

Abl. 

meliore  or  meliori 

Plur. 

N.,  V. 

meliSres            meliora 

Gen. 

meliorum 

DAT. 

melioribus 

Ace. 

meliores  (is)     meliora 

Abl. 

melioribus 

plus 

pluris 

plus 

plure 

plures  plura 

plurium 
pluribus 

plures  (is)   plura 
pluribus 

a.  The  stem  of  comparatives  properly  ended  in  os,  which 
became  or  in  all  cases  except  the  neuter  singular  (n.,  a.,  v.),  where 
s  is  retained,  and  6  is  changed  to  u  (compare  honor.,  oris  j  corpus., 
dris^.     Thus  they  appear  to  have  two  terminations. 

b.  The  neuter  singular  accusative  of  comparatives  is  used  as  an 
Adverb :  as,  melius,  better  j  acrius,  more  keenly. 


43  Etymology:  Adjectives, 

c.  The  neuter  singular  plua  is  used  only  as  a  noun ;  the  genitive 
(rarely  ablative),  as  an  expression  of  value.  The  dative  is  not 
found  in  classic  use.  Its  derivative,  complures,  several^  has 
sometimes  the  neuter  plural  compluria.  All  other  comparatives 
are  declined  like  melior. 

Case-Forms* 

87.  In  adjectives  of  consonant  stems  the  following 
case-forms  are  to  be  remarked :  — 

a.  Their  ablative  singular  commonly  ends  in  i;  but,  when  used 
as  nouns  (as,  superstes,  survivor),  they  have  e.  Participles  in 
US  used  as  such  (especially  in  the  ablative  absolute),  or  as  nouns, 
regularly  have  e ;  but  as  adjectives,  regularly  i.  So  adjectives  in 
ns,  e ;  anceps,  praeceps,  ingens,  always  i. 

b.  In  the  following,  e  is  the  regular  form  of  the  ablative:  — 
caeles,  compos,  discs,  dives,  hospes,  pauper,  particeps,  prtnceps^ 
superstes,  supplexj  also  in  patrials(see  §  54.  3),  with  stems  in  at-, 
it-,  nt-,  rt-,  when  used  as  nouns,  and  sometimes  as  adjectives. 

c.  The  genitive  plural  ends  commonly  in  ium;  the  accusative 
often  ends  in  is,  even  in  comparatives,  which  are  less  inclined  to 
the  i-declension. 

d.  In  the  following,  the  genitive  plural  ends  in  um:  — 

1.  Always  in  dives,  compos,  inops,  praepes,  supplex,  and  com- 
pounds of  nouns  which  have  um,  as  quadru-pes,  bi-color. 

2.  Sometimes,  in  poetry,  of  participles  in  na. 

e.  In  vetus  {iSris'),  pubes  (Jris),  fiber  (Jfris),  which  did  not  be- 
come i-stems,  the  forms  e,  a,  um,  are  regular  ;  but  ilber  and  vetus 
rarely  have  the  ablative  in  i 

/.  Several  adjectives  are  declined  in  more  than  one  form :  as, 
gracilis  (us),  hilaris  (us),  inermis  (us).  A  few  are  indeclinable 
or  defective  :  as,  damnas  (esto,  sunto),frugi  (dat.  of  advantage), 
exspes  (only  nom.),  exlex  (nom.  and  ace),  mactus  (nom.  and  voc), 
nequam  (indecl.),  pernox  (pernocte),  potis,  pate  (indecl.  or  m.  f. 
potis^  N.  pote),  priinorisy  semin^ci,  &c. 
Special  Uses* 

88.  The  following  special  uses  are  to  be  observed :  — 

a.  Many  adjectives  have  acquired  the  meaning  and  construc- 
tion of  nouns :  as,  amicus,  a  friend;  aequilis,  a  contemporary; 
mSjSres,  ancestors  (see  Note  p.  37). 

b.  Many  adjectives,  from  the  signification,  are  used  only  in  the 
masculine  or  feminine,  and  may  be  called  adjectives  of  common 


Comparison  of  Adjectives.  43 

gender.  Such  are  adulescens,  youthful;  deses,  Idis,  slothful; 
inops,  o^is,  poor;  sospes,  itis,  safe.  So  senex  and  juvenis  may 
be  called  tnasculine  adjectives. 

c.  Many  nouns  may  be  also  used  as  adjectives  (compare  Syntax 
of  adjectives) :  as,  pedes,  a  footman  or  on  foot;  especially  nouns 
in  tor  (m.)  and  trix  (f.),  denoting  the  agent :  as  victor  exercitus, 
the  conquering  army;  viotrix  causa,  the  winning  cause. 
"^  d.  Certain  forms  of  many  adjectives  are  regularly  used  as 
Adverbs.  These  are,  the  accusative  and  ablative  of  the  neuter 
singular:  as,  multum,  multo,  much;  the  N.  sing,  of  comparatives 
(see  86.  b)  :  as,  melius,  better;  ISvius,  more  lightly.  Adverbs  end- 
ing in  e  from  o-stems,  and  ter  from  i-stems,  were  also  once  case- 
forms  :  as,  care,  dearly;  leviter,  lightly;  acerrime,  most  eagerly. 

COMPARISON. 
Regular  Comparison. 

-ij      89.  The   Comparative  is  formed  by  adding,  for  the 
|f     nominative,  ior   (neuter  ius^),  and   the  Superlative  by 
adding  issimus  (a,  um)  to  the   stem  of  the   Positive, 
which  loses  its  final  vowel :  as, 

carus,  dear ;  carior,  dearer;  carissimus,  dearest. 
levis,  light ;  levior,  lighter;  levissimus,  lightest. 
felix,  happy ;  felicior,  happier;  felicissimus,  happiest. 
hebes,  dull;  hebetior,  duller;  hebetissimus,  dullest. 

a.  Adjectives  in  er  form  the  superlative  by  adding  -rimus  to 
the  nominative  ;  the  comparative  is  regular ;  as, 

acer,  keen;  acrior,  acerrimus ; 

miser,  wretched;  miserior,  miserrimus. 
So  vetus  {veteris)  has  superlative  veterrimus,  from  the  old  form 
veter;   and,    rarely,    maturrimus  (also  mdturissimus)   is   formed 
from  maturus.     For  comparative  of  vetus,  vetustior  is  used. 

b.  The  following  in  lis  add  -limus  to  the  stem  clipped  of  its 
vowel :  facilis,  difficilis,  similis,  dissimilis,  gracilis,  humilis 
(comparative  regular):  as,  facilis,  easy;  facilior,  facillimus. 

^  The  comparative  suffix  (earlier  los)  is  the  same  as  the  Greek  iwv,  or  the  Skr. 
tyans.  That  of  the  superlative  {issitmis)  is  a  double  form,  but  what  is  the  com- 
bination is  not  certain  ;  perhaps  it  stands  for  ios-timus  (comparative  and  superla- 
tive), or  possibly  for  ist-timus  (i-^o  superlatives).  The  endings  -limus  and  -rimus 
are  formed  by  assimilation  from  -timus  and  -simus.  The  comparative  and  super- 
lative are  thus  formed  upon  new  stems,  and  are  not  to  be  strictly  regarded  as 
forms  of  inflection. 


44  Etymology:  Adjectives. 

c.  Compounds  in  -dXcus  {saying)^  -flcus  {doing),  -vblus  {willingly 
take  the  forms  of  corresponding  participles  in  ns,  which  were 
anciently  used  as  adjectives  :  as, 

maledicus,  slanderous  j  maledlcentior,  maledicentissimus. 
malevolus,  spiteful;  malevolentior,  malevolentissimus. 

d.  Adjectives  in  us  preceded  by  a  vowel  (except  u)  rarely  have 
forms  of  comparison,  but  are  compared  by  the  adverbs  magis, 
more;  mazime,  most :  as, 

id6neus,y?/y  magis  idoneus,  maxime  idoneus. 
Most   derivatives   in  -icus,  -Idus,   alls,   -aria,  His,  iilus,  -undus, 
-timus,  -inus,  -xvus,  -orus,  with  compounds,  as  degener,  inops,  are 
also  compared  with  magis  and  maxime.    Pius  has  piissimus, 

e.  Participles  when  used  as  adjectives  are  regularly  compared  : 
as,  patientior,  patientissimus ;  apertior,  apertissimus. 

Note.  —  Many  adjectives  —  as  aureus,  golden  —  are  from  their  meaning 
incapable  of  comparison  ;  but  each  language  has  its  own  usage  in  this  respect. 
Thus  niger,  black,  and  candidus,  white,  are  compared ;  but  not  ater  or  albus, 
meaning  absolute  black  or  white  (except  that  Plautus  once  has  atrior). 

f.  A  form  of  Diminutive  is  made  upon  the  stem  of  some  com- 
paratives :  as,  majusculus,  somewhat  larger. 

Irregrular  and  Defective  Comparison. 

90.  Several  adjectives  are  compared  from  dijfferent 
stems,  or  contain  irregular  forms  :  as, 

bonus,  melior,  optimus,  good,  better,  best. 

mElus,  pejor  (peior),  pessimus,  bad,  worse,  worst. 

magnus,  major  (maior),  m-aixSmxis,  great,  greater,  greatest. 

parvus,  minor,  minimus,  small,  less,  least. 

multus,  plus  (n.),  plurimus,  much,  more,  most. 

multi,  plures,  plurimi,  tnany,  more,  most. 

nequam  (indecl.),  nequior,  nequissimus,  worthless. 

frugi  (indecl.),  frugalior,  frugalissimus,  useful,  worthy. 

dexter,  dexterior,  dextimus,  on  the  right,  handy. 

91.  The  following  are  formed  from  roots  or  stems  not 
used  as  adjectives  :  — 

cis,  citra  :  eiterior,  citimus,  hither,  hithermost. 
in,  intra  :  interior,  intimus,  inner,  inmost. 
prae,  pro  :  prior,  primus,  former,  frst. 
prope  :  propior,  proximus,  nearer,  next. 
ultra:  ulterior,  \i\\\m\is, farther, farthest. 


Comparison  of  Adverbs.  45 

a.  Of  the  following  the  positive  forms  —  themselves  originally 
comparative  —  are  rare,  except  when  used  as  nouns  (generally  in 
the  plural)  :  — 

ezterus,  exterior,  extremus  (extimus),  outer,  outmost. 

inferus,  inferior,  infimus  (imus),  lower,  lowest. 

posterus,  posterior,  postremus  (postumus),  latter,  last* 

superus,  superior,  supremus  or  summus,  higher,  highest. 
The  plurals,  exteri,  foreigners;   posteri,  posterity;  superi,  the 
heavenly  gods ;  inferi,  those  below,  are  common. 

b.  From  juvenis,  youth,  senez,  old  man,  are  formed  the  com- 
paratives junior,  younger,  senior,  older.  Instead  of  the  superla- 
tive, the  phrase  minimus  or  maximus  ndtii  is  used  {jiatu  being 
often  understood),  as  also  major  and  minor  in  the  comparative. 

c.  In  the  following,  one  of  the  forms  of  comparison  is  wanting:  — 

1.  The  positive  is  wanting  in  deterior,  deterrimus ;  ocior,  ocissi- 
mus;  potior,  potissimus. 

2.  The  Comparative  is  wanting  in  bellus,  caesius,  falsus,  fidus, 
inclutus  (or  inclitus'),  invictus,  invltus,  novus,  plus,  sacer,  vafer, 
vetus. 

3.  The  Superlative  is  wanting  in  actuosus,  agrestis,  alacer,  arcd- 
nus,  caecus,  diUturnus,  extlis,  ingens,  jejunus,  longinquus,  obliquus, 
opimus,  proclivis,  propinquus,  satur,  segnis,  serus,  supinus,  surdus, 
taciturnus,  tempesttvus,  teres,  vicinus,  and  some  in  His. 

Comparison  of  Adverbs. 

92,  Adverbs  formed  from  adjectives  are  compared  as 
follows  (see  81.  ^,  84.  d) :  as, 

carus,  dear  :  care,  carius,  carissime. 
miser,  wretched:  misere  (miseriter),  miserius,  miserrime. 
levis,  light :  leviter,  levius,  levissime. 
audax,  bold :  audacter  (audaciter),  audacius,  audacissime. 
bonus,  ^^<9^.-  bene,  melius,  optime. 
malus,  bad :  male,  pejus  (peius),  pessime. 
Aljo,  in  hke  manner  — 

diu,  long  (in  time)  :  diiitius,  diutissime. 

potius,  rather;  potissimum,yfri'/'  (or  chiefs  of  all. 

saepe,  often  :  saepius,  saepissime. 

^ditiB,  enough ;  ^2d\\is,  preferable. 

secus,  otherwise ;  secius,  worse. 

multum  (multo),  magis,  maxime,  much,  more,  most. 

parum, minus,  minime 


46  Etymology:  Numerals. 

Sigmification. 

93.  Besides  their  regular  signification,  the  forms  of 
comparison  are  used  as  follows :  — 

a.  The  Comparative  denotes  a  considerable  or  excessive  degree 
of  a  quality  :  as,  brevier,  rather  short;  audacior,  too  bold.  It  is 
Used  instead  of  the  superlative  where  only  two  are  spoken  of. 

b.  The  Superlative  (of  eminence)  often  denotes  a  very  high 
degree  of  a  quality  without  a  distinct  comparison :  as,  mazimus 
numerus,  a  very  great  7iujnber.  With  quam  or  vel  it  means  the 
highest  degree :  as,  quam  plurimi,  as  many  as  possible;  quam 
mazime  potest  (quam  potest),  as -much  as  can  be. 

c.  With  quisque,  the  superlative  has  a  peculiar  signification : 
thus  the  phrase  ditissimus  quisque  means,  all  the  richest;  primus 
quisque,  all  the  first  (each  in  his  order),'  Two  superlatives  with 
quisque  imply  a  proportion  :  as, 

sapientissimus    quisque    aequissimo     animo    moritur,    the 
wisest  men  die  with  the  greatest  eqtiatiimity  (Cat.  Maj.  23). 

d.  A  high  degree  of  a  quahty  is  denoted  by  such  adverbs  as 
admSdum,  valde,  very;  or  by  per  or  prae  in  composition:  as, 
permagnus,  very  great ;  praealtus,  very  high  (or  deep). 

e.  A  low  degree  is  indicated  by  sub  in  composition :  as,  aub- 
ruBticus,  r^M^r  clownish;  or  by  minus,  «^/  very;  minime,  not 
at  all ;  parum,  not  enough;  non  satis,  7iot  jnuch. 

f.  The  comparatives  majores  and  minores  have  the  special 
signification  of  ancestors  and  descendants. 

NUMERALS. 
Cardinal  and  Ordinal. 

94.  Cardinal  Numbers  answer  to  the  interrogative 
^uot,  how  many  ?  Ordinal  Numbers^  to  quotus,  ivhich 
in  order y  or  one  of  how  many  ?    They  are  as  follows  :  — 

*  As  in  taking  one  by  one  off  a  pile,  each  piece  is  uppermost  when  you  take  it. 

*  The  Ordinals  (except  secvndus^  tertius,  octSvus)  are  formed  by  means  of  the 
same  suffixes  as  superlatives.  Thus  decimus  (compare  the  form  infimtts)  may  be 
regarded  as  the  last  of  a  series  of  ten  ;  pr'tmus  is  a  superlative  of  pro;  the  forms 
in  -tus  (quart  us,  quint  us,  sextus)  may  be  compared  with  the  corresponding  Greek 
forms  in  -to«  and  trpwrof,  superlative  of  irpo  ,-  non  us  is  contracted  from  norimus ; 
while  the  others  have  the  regular  superlative  ending  -simus.  Of  the  exceptions, 
secundus  is  a  participle  of  sequor ;  and  alter  is  a  comparative  form  (compare  repot 
in  Greek).  The  multiples  of  ten  are  compounds  of  the  unit  with  a  fragment  of 
tUctm :  as,  viginti  =  dvi-ginti  {dui-decem-ti). 


Numerals, 


47 


CARDINAL. 

1.  unus,  una,  unum,  one, 

2.  duo,  duae,  duo,  two. 

3.  tres,  tria,  three^  &^c. 

4.  quattuor 

5.  quinque 

6.  sex  .   . 

7.  septem 

8.  octo 

9.  novem 

10.  decern 

11.  undecim 

12.  duodecim 

13.  tredecim 

14.  quattuordecim 

15.  quindecim 

16.  sedecim 

17.  septendecim 

18.  duodevTginti  (octodecim) 

19.  undevTginti  (novendecim) 

20.  vTginti 

21.  viginti  unus  ^r  unus  et  viginti 
30.  trlginta 

40.  quadraginta 

50.  quinquaginta 

60.  sexaginta 

70.  septuaginta 

80.  oct5ginta 

90.  ndnaginta 
100.  centum 
200.  ducenti,  ae,  a 
300.  trecenti 
400.  quadringenti 
500.  quingenti 
600.  sexcenti 
700.  septingenti 
800.  octingenti 
900.  nongenti 
1000.  mille 

5000.  quinque  millia  (mllia) 
10,000.  decern  millia  (mllia) 
100,000.  centum  millia  (milia) 


ORDINAL.  ROMAN   NUMERALS. 

primus,  a,  vim^  first.  i. 

secundus  (alter),  second.  11. 

tertius,  third.  iii. 

quartus  iv. 

quintus  v. 

sextus  VI. 

Septimus  vii. 

octavus  viii. 

nonus  IX. 

decimus  x. 

undecimus  xi. 

duodecimus  xii. 

tertius  decimus  xiii. 

quartus  decimus  xiv. 

quintus  decimus  xv. 

sextus  decimus  xvi. 

Septimus  decimus  xvii. 

duodevTcesimus  xviii. 

undevicesimus  xix. 

vicesimus  (vTgesimus)  xx. 

vTcesimus  primus,  etc.  xxi. 

trlcesimus  xxx. 

quadragesimus  XL. 

quinquagesimus  l. 

sexagesimus  lx. 

septuagesimus  LXX. 

octogesimus  Lxxx. 

nonagesimus  xc. 

centesimus  c. 

ducentesimus  cc. 

trecentesimus  ccc. 

quadringentesimus  cccc. 

quingentesimus  ID,  or  d. 

sexcentesimus  dc. 

septingentesimus  *       dcc. 

octingentesimus  DCCC. 

nongentesimus  Dcccc. 
millesimus                    cio,  or  m. 

quinquies  millesimus  133. 

decies  millesimus  CCioo. 

centigs  millesimus  ccciddd. 


48 


Etymology:  Numerals, 


NOM. 

duo 

duae 

Gen. 

duorum 

duarum 

DAT. 

duobus 

duabus 

Ace. 

duos  (duo) 

duas 

Abl. 

duobus 

duabus 

a.  For  the  inflection  of  unua,  see  83.  a.  It  often  has  the 
meaning  of  same  or  only.  It  is  used  in  the  plural  in  this  sense,  as 
also  to  agree  with  a  plural  noun  of  a  singular  meaning :  as,  flna 
caatra,  one  camp.     So  uni  et  alteri,  one  party  and  the  other. 

b.  Duo,'  two^  and  ambo,  both^  are  thus  dechned  :  — 

duo 

duonun 

duobus 

duo 

duobus 

c.  Ties,  tria,  three^  is  an  i-stem,  and  is  regularly  declined  like 
the  plural  of  levis  (see  84).  The  other  cardinal  numbers,  up  to 
centum  (100),  are  indeclinable.  The  forms  octodecim,  novendccim, 
are  rare,  duodeviginti,  undevtgttiti  (and  some  higher)  being  used. 

d.  The  hundreds,  up  to  1000,  and  all  the  ordinals,  are  o-stems, 
and  are  regularly  declined  like  the  plural  of  bonus. 

e.  Mille,  a  thousand,  is  an  indeclinable  adjective.  In  the  plural 
(milia  or  millia,  thousands),  it  is  used  as  a  neuter  noun,  with 
a  genitive  plural :  as,  cu?n  duobus  tnilibus  hominum.^ 

Note.  —  The  singular  mille  is  also  sometimes  found  as  a  noun  in  the  nomina- 
tive and  accusative  :  as,  mille  hominum  mi  sit ;  but  in  the  other  cases  only  in  con- 
nection with  the  same  case  of  millia:  as,  cum  octo  millibus peditum,  mille  equitum. 

Distributives. 

95.  Distributive  Numerals  are  declined  like  the  plural 
of  bonus.  They  answer  to  the  interrogative  quoteni, 
how  many  of  eachy  or  at  a  time :  as, 


I. 

singuli,  one  by  one.  13. 

terni  deni,  &c, 

200. 

duceni 

2. 

blni,  two-and'two.   18. 

duodevTceni 

300. 

treceni 

3- 

terni,  trini                 19. 

undevTceni 

400. 

quadringeni 

4. 

quaterni                   20. 

vTceni 

500. 

quingeni 

5. 

quini                         30. 

triceni 

600. 

scsceni 

6. 

seni                           40. 

quadrageni 

700. 

septingeni 

7. 

septeni                     50. 

quinquageni 

800. 

octingeni 

8. 

octoni                      60. 

sexageni 

900. 

nongeni 

9- 

noveni                      70. 

septuageni 

1000. 

milleni 

10. 

deni                           80. 

octogeni 

2000. 

bina  millia 

II. 

undeni                      90. 

nonageni 

10,000. 

dena  millia 

12. 

duodeni                  100. 

centeni 

100,000. 

centena  millia 

*  This  form  in  -o  is  a  remnant  of  the  dual  number,  which  was  lost  in  Latin, 
but  is  found  in  cognate  languages.  2  Or,  in  poetry,  cum  bis  mille  hominibus. 


Numeral  Adverbs.  49 

Distributives  are  used  as  follows  :  — 

a.  In  the  meaning  of  so  many  apiece  or  on  each  side :  as,  sin- 
gula singulis,  one  apiece  j  agri  septena  jugera  plebi  divisa  sunt, 
i.  e.  seven  acres  to  each  citizen. 

b.  Instead  of  Cardinals,  when  a  noun  is  plural  in  form  but 
singular  in  meaning:  as,  bina  castra,  two  camps  (duo  castra 
would  mean  two  forts).  But  the  plural  uni  is  used  (instead  of 
singuli),  and  trini  (not  terni),  to  signify  one  and  three  (See  94.  «). 

c.  In  multiplication :  as,  bis  bina,  twice  two  j  ter  septenis 
'^iebus,  in  thrice  seven  days,  i.e.  in  three  weeks. 

d.  By  the  poets  instead  of  cardinal  numbers,  particularly  where 
pairs  or  sets  are  spoken  of:  as,  bina  hastilia,  two  shafts  (each 
person  usually  carrying  two). 

Numeral  Adverbs. 

96.  The  Numeral  Adverbs  answer  to  the  interrogative 
quotiens  (quoties),  how  often.  They  are  used,  in  combination 
with  mille,  to  express  the  higher  numbers  :  as,  ter  et  tricies 
{centena  millid)  sestertium,  3,300,000  sesterces. 

1.  semel,  once.  12.  duodecies  40.  quadragies 

2.  bis,  twice.  13.  terdecies  50.  quinquagies 

3.  ter,  thrice.  14.  quaterdecies  60.  sexagies 

4.  quater  15.  quindecies  70.  septuagies 

5.  quinquies  (ens)     16.  sedecies  80.  octogies 

6.  sexies  17.  septiesdecies  90.  nonagies 

7.  septies  18.  duodevTcies  loo.  centies 

8.  octies  19.  undevTcies  200.  ducenties 

9.  novies  20.  vTcies  300.  trecenties 

10.  decies  21.  semel  et  vTcies,  &c.     1000.  millies 

11.  undecies  30.  tricies  10,000.  decies  millies 

97.  The  adjectives  simplex  (single),  duplex,  triplex,  quadru-, 
quincu-,  septem-,  decern-,  centu-,  sesqui-  (i)4),  multi-plex,  are 
called  Multiplicatives.  They  are  compounds  of  -plico  (as  in  English 
twofold) ;  and  are  inflected  as  adjectives  of  one  termination. 

Other  derivatives  are  — 

a.  Proportionals  :  duplus,  triplus,  &c.,  twice  or  thrice  as  great. 

b.  Temporals  :  bimus,  trimus,  of  two  or  thre'e  years'  age ;  biennis, 
triennis,  lasting  two  or  three  years  ;  bimestris,  trimestris,  of  two  or  three 
months  ;  biduum,  biennium,  a  period  of  two  days  or  years. 

c.  Partitives  :  binarius,  ternarius,  of  two  or  three  parts. 

d.  Fractions  :  dimidia  pars  (dimidium),  a  half-,  tertia  pars,  a  third. 

e.  The  following :  unio,  unity;  binio,  the  two  (of  dice);  binarius, 
consisting  of  two;  primanus,  of  the  first  (legion)  ;  primarius,  of  the  fir  ^t 
rank ;  denarius,  a  sum  of  lo  asses ;  binus  (distrib.),  double,  See. 

4 


50  Etymology:  Pronouns. 

Chapter    V.  —  Pronouns, 

Personal  and  Reflexive. 

98.  The  Personal  Pronouns  of  the  first  person  are 
ego,  /,  nos,  we ;  of  the  second  person^  tu,  thoUy  vos, 
ye  or  yon. 


FIRST 

PERSON. 

SECOND  PERSON. 

NOM. 

ego,  / 

noB,  we 

ixi,thou 

■voa,ye  ox  you 

Gen. 

mei,  of  ?ne 

nostrum  (tri),  of  us 

tui 

vestnim  (tri) 

DAT. 

mihi,  to  me 

nobis,  to  us 

tibi 

vobis 

Ace. 

me,  7ne 

no8,  us 

te 

vos 

Voc. 

t& 

vos 

Abl. 

me,  by  7ne 

nobis,  by  us 

te 

vobis 

a.  These  pronouns  are  also  used  reflexively :  as,  ipse  te 
nimium  laudas,  you  praise  yourself  too  much. 

b.  The  personal  pronouns  of  the  third  person  —  he,  she,  it,  they 
—  are  wanting  in  Latin,  a  demonstrative  being  sometimes  used. 

c.  The  Reflexive  pronoun  of  the  third  person  (referring  to  the 
subject  of  the  sentence  or  clause,  and  hence  used  only  in  the 
oblique  cases)  is  the  same  in  the  singular  and  plural :  viz., 

Gen.     sui,      of  himself  herself  the?nselves. 
Dat.     sibi,     to         „  „  „ 

Ace.     se  (sese)        „  „  „ 

Abl.     se  (sese),  by    „  „  „ 

d.  The  plural  nos  is  often  used  for  the  singular  Ij  the  plural 
vos  never  for  the  singular  tu.' 

99.  In  the  meaning  and  use  of  these  Pronouns  it  is 
to  be  observed  that  — 

a.  For  the  genitive  of  possession  (Subjective),  the  Adjectives 
meus,  tuus,  suus,  nosier,  vester  (voster'),  are  to  be  used,  declined 
as  in  8i.  82.  But  meus  has  the  vocative  singular  masculine  mE 
(rarely  meus). 

b.  The  genitives  nostrum,  vestrum,  are  the  contracted  genitive 
plural  of  the  possessives  noster,  vester.  (So  in  early  and  late 
Latin  we  find  una  vestrarum.^     They  are  Mstd  partitk^ely  :  as, 

ilnusquisque  nostrum,  each  one  of  us. 

1  There  is  an  old  form  of  genitive  in  is  t  as  mis,  tis,  sis ;  also  an  accusative 
and  ablative  med,  ted,  sed.  The  earlier  form  vostrum,  vostri,  is  sometimes  used 
for  V€strum,  vestri. 


Prenouns :  Demonstrative.  51 

c.  The  genitives  mei^  tut,  sui,  nostri,  vestri,  are  the  genitive 
singular  of  the  neuter  possessives,  meum,  &c.,  meaning  my^  your, 
gur,  interest  or  concern^  and  chiefly  used  objectively  :  as, 

memor  sis  nostri,  be  mindful  of  us. 

d.  One  another  {each  other)  is  expressed  by  inter  se  or  alter 
.  .  .  alterum:  as,  inter  se  amant,  they  love  each  other. 

e.  The  preposition  cum,  with,  is  joined  enclitically  with  the 
ablative  of  these  pronouns  :  as,  tecum  loquitur,  he  talks  with  you. 

f  To  the  personal  (and  sometimes  to  the  adjective)  pronouns 
encHtics  are  joined  for  emphasis  :  — met  to  all  except  tu  (nom.)  ; 
-te  to  tu  {tute,  also  tutijttet)  ;  -pte  to  the  ablative  singular  of  the 
adjectives,  and  in  early  Latin  to  the  others  :  as, 

vosmetipsos  proditis,  you  betray  your  own  very  selves, 

suopte  pondere,  by  its  own  weight. 

Demonstrative. 

100.  The  Demonstrative  Pronouns  are  hie,  this ; 
is,  ille,  iste,  that ;  with  the  Intensive  ipse,  self,  and 
idem,  same.^ 

a.  Ille  is  a  later  form  of  ollus  (oUe),  which  is  sometimes  used 
by  the  poets  ;  a  genitive  singular  in  i,  ae,  i,  occurs  in  ille  and  iste. 

b.  Iste  is  sometimes  found  in  early  writers  in  the  form  ste,  &c., 
with  the  entire  loss  of  the  first  syllable  ;  and  the  i  of  ipse  and  ille 
is  very  often  found  shortened. 

c.  Ipse  is  compounded  of  is  and  -pse  (for  pte,  from  the  same 
root  as  potis),  meaning  self.  The  former  part  was  originally  de- 
cHned,  as  in  reapse  (for  re  eapse),  in  fact.  An  old  form  ipsus 
occurs.     Idem  is  the  demonstrative  is  with  the  affix  -dem. 

101.  These  demonstratives  are  used  either  with  nouns 
as  Adjectives,  or  alone  as  Pronouns  ;  and,  from  their 
signification,  cannot  (except  ipse)  have  a  vocative.  They 
are  thus  declined  :  — 

1  These  demonstratives  are  combinations  of  o  and  i-stems,  which  are  not  clearly 
distinguishable.  Hie  is  a  compound  of  the  stem  ho-  with  the  demonstrative 
ce,  which  appears  in  full  in  early  Latin  {like),  and  when  followed  by  the  enclitic  -ne 
{hicine).  In  most  of  the  cases  ce  is  shortened  to  c,  and  in  many  lost ;  but  it  is 
appended  for  emphasis  to  those  that  do  not  regularly  retain  it  {hujusce).  In  early 
Latin  c  alone  is  retained  in  some  of  these  {horunc).  Ille  and  iste  are  sometimes 
found  with  the  same  enclitic  :  illic,  illaee^  illuc  ;  also  illoc  (ace.  or  abl.  :  loi.  a). 


52 


Etymology :  P7'o?iotins. 


Sing:.  M.  F.  N.  M. 

NoM.  hic  haec  hoc,  this,       is 

Gen.  hujus  hujus  hujus  ejus 

Dat.  huic  huic  huic  ei 

Acc.  hunc  hanc  hoc  eum 

Abl.  hoc  hac  hoc  eo 

Plur. 

NoM.  hi  hae  haec,  these. 

Gen.  honim  harum  horum 

Dat.  his  his  his 

Acc.  hos  has  haec 

Abl.  his  his  his 


ejus 
ei 

earn 
ea 


N. 

id,  that. 

ejus 

ei 

id 

eo 


ii  (ei)       eae  ea,  those. 

eorum    earum     eorum 

eis  or  iis 
eos         eas  ea 

eis  or  iis 


Note.  —  For  the  dative  and  ablative  plural  of  hic  the  old  forms 
hibus  and  ibus  are  sometimes  found  ;  also  (rarely)  haec  for  hae. 


Sing. 

NOM. 

Gen. 
Dat. 
Acc. 
Abl. 


M. 

Ule 

illius 

ilU 

ilium 

illo 


F. 

ilia 

illius 

illi 

illam 

ilia 


N. 

illud,  that. 

illius 

illi 

illud 

Ulo 


M. 

ipse 

ipsius 

ipsi 

ipsum 

ipso 


F. 

ipsa 

ipsius 

ipsi 

ipsam 

ipsa 


N. 

ipsum,  self. 

ipsius 

ipsi 

ipsum 

ipso 


Plnr. 

N.,  V.  illi  illae  ilia  ipsi  ipsae        ipsa 

Gen.  illorum  illarum  illorum  ipsorum  ipsarum  ipsorum 

Dat.  illis  illis  illis  ipsis         ipsis         ipsis 

Acc.  illos  illas  ilia  ips5s        ipsas        ipsa 

Abl.  illis  illis  illis  ipsis         ipsis         ipsis 


Sing. 

N.  idem        eSdem      Idem 
G.  ejusdemejusdem  ejusdem 
D.  eidem      eidem      eidem 
A.  eundem  eandem  Idem 
A.  eodem     eadem     eodem 


the  sajne.  Plur. 

iidem  (ei-)  eaedem      eidem 
eorundem  earundem  eorundem 

eisdem  or  iisdem 
eosdem      easdem     eidem 

eisdem  or  iisdem 


a.  Iste,  ista,  istud,  that  (yonder),  is  declined  like  ille.  By 
combination  with  the  demonstrative  -ce,^  ille  and  iste  have  the 
following  forms  :  — 


Sing*           M.  F.  N. 

NoM.     illio  illaeo  m6o(muo) 

Acc.       illuno  illanc  illoo  (illuo) 

Abl.      iUdc  iliac  ill6o 

Plur. 

NoM.  or  Acc.  iUaeo 


M.  F.  N. 

istlo  (isthio)    istaeo    istdo(i8tuo) 
istuno  istano   istoc  (istuo) 

istoo  istao      istoo 

istaeo 


^  The  intensive-CB  is  also  found  in  numerous  combinations :  as,  hujusce^ 
huncce^  horunce.,  hdrunce^  hosce^  Aisce,  iliiusce,  iisce ;  also  with  the  interrogative 
-NE,  in  hocincy  hescine^  istucine^  Wicine^  &c.  The  intensive  pse  is  found  in  the 
forms  ea/>se  (nom.),  aumfse^  eam^stf  ebpu,  4dfte  (abl.)  i  &)«•  in  rtg^se  —  re i/>sa. 


Pronouns:  Demonstrative,  53 

b.  The  normal  forms  illi^  isti  (gen.),  and  illae^  istae  (dat.),  are 
found  ;  also  the  nominative  plural  istaece,  illaece  (for  istae^  illae). 

c.  The  forms  iidem,  iisdem^  are  often  written  idem^  tsdem. 
Obsolete  forms  are  eae  (dat.  for  ei),  and  eabus  or  ibus  (for  iis). 

d.  By  composition  with  ecce  or  en,  behold !  are  found  eccum, 
eccam,  eccos,  eccas  j  eccillum,  ellum,  ellam^  ellos,  ellas  j  eccistam. 
These  forms  are  dramatic  and  colloquial. 

e.  The  combinations  hujusmodi  {hujuscetnodi^^  ejusmodi^  &c., 
are  used  as  indeclinable  adjectives,  equivalent  to  talis,  such  :  as, 
res  ejusmodi,  such  a  thing  (a  thing  of  that  sort :  compare  215). 

102.  In  the  use  of  these  demonstratives  it  is  to  be 
observed  that  — 

a.  Hie  is  used  of  what  is  near  the  speaker  (in  time,  place, 
thought,  or  on  the  written  page)  ;  hence  called  the  demonstrative 
of  the  first  person.  It  is  sometimes  used  of  the  speaker  himself ; 
sometimes  for  "  the  latter  "  of  two  things  mentioned  ;  more  rarely 
for  "  the  former." 

t  b.  nie  is  used  of  what  is  remote  (in  time,  &c.)  ;  hence  called 
the  demonstrative  of  the  third  person.  It  is  sometimes  used  to 
mean  "  the  former ;  "  also  (usually  following  its  noun)  of  what  is 
famous  or  well-known ;  often  (especially  the  neuter  illud)  to  mean 
"  the  following." 

c.  Iste  is  used  of  what  is  between  the  two  others  in  remoteness : 
often  in  allusion  to  the  person  addressed,  —  hence  called  the 
demonstrative  of  the  second  person.  It  especially  refers  to  one's 
opponent  (in  court,  &c.),  and  frequently  implies  contempt. 

d.  Is  is  a  weaker  demonstrative  than  the  others,  not  denoting 
any  special  object,  but  referring  to  one  just  mentioned,  or  to  be 
explained  by  a  relative.  It  is  used  oftener  than  the  others  as  a 
personal  pronoun  (see  98.  b')  ;  and  is  often  merely  a  correlative  to 
the  relative  qui  :  as,  eum  quern,  one  whom;  eum  consulem  qui 
non  dubitet  (Cic.) ,  a  consul  who  will  not  hesitate. 

e.  Ipse  may  be  used  with  a  personal  pronoun  of  either  person, 
as  nos  ipsi  (nosmetipsi),  we  ourselves;  or  independently  (the 
verb  containing  the  pronoun,  or  the  context  implying  it),  as  ipsi 
adestis,  j^z/  are  yourselves  present ;  or  with  a  noun,  as  ipsi  fontes 
(Virg.),  the  very  fountains. 

Note.  —  In  English,  the  pronouns  himself^  &c.,  are  used  both  intensively  (as, 
he  will  cojne  himself  )2indrt^eyiiy f^Y{?ts^  he  will  kill  himself  )•.  in  Latin  the  former 
would  be  translated  ipse  ;  the  latter  se,  or  sese* 


54  Etymology :   Pronouns, 


Relative,  Interrogrative,  and  Indefinite. 

Note.  —  The  Relative,  Interrogative,  and  Indefinite  Pronouns 
are  originally  of  the  same  Stem,  and  the  forms  for  the  most  part 
are  the  same  (compare  103  with  104)  ;  viz.,  qui,  quis^  {who^  who? 
any)f  with  their  compounds  and  derivatives. 

103.  The  relative  pronoun  qui  is  thus  declined :  — 

SINGULAR.  who,  which.  PLURAL. 


NOM. 

qui 

quae 

quod 

qui 

quae 

quae 

Gen. 

cujus 

ciijus 

ciijus 

quorum 

quarum 

quorum 

DAT. 

cui 

cui 

cui 

quibus 

quibus 

quibus 

Ace. 

quern 

quam 

quod 

quos 

quas 

quae 

Abl. 

quo 

qua 

quo 

quibus 

quibus 

quibus 

NOM. 

Gen. 

DAT. 

quis  (qui) 

ciijus 

cui 

Ace. 
Abl. 

quern 
quo 

104.  The  interrogative  or  indefinite  quis  (qui)  is  de- 
clined in  the  singular  as  follows  (plural  as  above) :  — 

who  ?     which  ?  any. 

quae  quid  (quod) 

ciijus  cujus 

cui  cui 

quam  quid  (quod) 

qua  quo 

Case  Forms.  —  a.  The  Relative  has  always  qui  and  quod  in 
the  nominative  singular.  The  Interrogative  and  Indefinite  have 
quis,  quid,  substantive,  and  qui,  quod,  adjective.  But  quis  and 
qui  are  sometimes  used  for  each  other.     Thus  — 

quis  vooat?  who  calls?  quid  vides?  what  do  you  see?  but  — 
qui  (or  quis)  homo  vocat?  quod  templum  vides? 
nescio  qui  sis,  /  know  not  who  you  are. 

b.  Old  forms  for  the  genitive  and  dative  are  quoius,  quoL 

c.  The  form  qui  is  used  for  the  ablative  of  both  numbers  and 
all  genders  ;  but  especially  as  an  adverb  (Jio^u,  by  which  way,  in 
any  way),  and  in  the  combination  quicum,  as  interrogative  or 
indefinite  relative. 

d.  A  nominative  plural  quis  (stem  qui-)  is  found  in  early 
Latin.  The  dative  and  ablative  quia  (stem  qu5-)  is  old,  but  not 
infrequent. 

*  The  stem  has  two  forms,  qno«  and  qnl-.  From  the  latter  are  formed  guts, 
quid,  guem,  quibus,  qui  (abl.) ;  while  qui,  quae,  are  probably  lengthened  forms  of 
fud,  qud  (see  32,  decl.  i ),  made  by  the  addition  of  the  demonstrative  particle  !• 


Pronouns:   Relative  and  Interrogative.  55 

e.  The  preposition  cum  is  joined  enclitically  to  all  forms  of  the 
ablative,  as  with  the  personal  pronouns  :  as,  quocum,  qutcum,  qui- 
buscum. 

f.  The  accusative  form  quum  (cum)  is  used  only  as  a  conjunc- 
tion, meaning  when  or  since. 

105.  The  stems  qjio-  and  qui-  are  thus  compounded : 

a.  The  suffix  -cumque  (-cunque)  added  to  the  relative  makes 
an  Indefinite  Relative,  which  is  declined  as  the  simple  word :  as, 

quicumique,  quaecumque,  quodcumque,  whoever,  whatever. 

This  suffix,  with  the  same  meaning,  may  be  used  with  any 
relative :  as,  qualiacumque,  of  whatever  sort ;  quandocumque 
(quandoque),  whenever  j  ubicumque,  wherever. 

b.  The  interrogative  form  doubled  also  makes  an  indefinite 
relative :  as,  quisquis,  whoever  (so  utut,  however,  ubiubi,  wher- 
ever^. Of  quisquis  both  parts  are  declined,  but  the  feminine  is 
wanting  in  classic  use  :  as, 

NOM.  quisquis  (quiqui)         quidquid  (quioquid) 

Acc.  quemquem  quidquid  (quicquid) 

Abl.,  quoquo        quSqua       quoquo 

Plur.  NoM.  quiqui  Dat.,  Abl.  quibusquibus 

This  compound  is  rare,  except  in  the  forms  quisquis,  quicquid, 
and  quoquo.  The  case-form  quamquam  is  used  only  as  a  conjunc- 
tion. Quiqui  (nom.  sing.)  is  an  early  and  quaqua  a  late  form.  The 
grammarians  give  also  a  regular  genitive  and  dative.  Cuicuimodi 
appears  as  a  genitive,  but  is  probably  locative. 

c.  Indefinite  Compounds  are  the  following  :  — 

quidam,  a,  a  certain  j  quispiam,  any; 

quivis,  quillbet,  any-you-please ;  quisquam,  any-at-all. 

Of  these,  the  former  part  is  inflected  like  quis,  qui,  with  quid  or 
quod  in  the  neuter. 

^.  In  aliquis,  any;  siquis,  if  any ;  nequis,  lest  any;  ecquis, 
uumquis,  whether  any,  the  second  part  is  declined  like  quis,  but 
with  qu5  for  quae,  except  in  the  nominative  plural  feminine .  The 
simple  form  quis,  any,  is  rare  except  in  these  combinations  ; 
and  the  compounds  quispiam,  aliquis,  are  often  used  in  these, 
being  rather  more  emphatic  (si  quis,  if  any  one;  si  aliquis,  if 
some  one).     The  forms  ali-,  ec-quae  (nom.  sing.  F.),  occur  rarely. 


56  Etymology:  Pronouns;  Correlatives. 

These  compounds  are  thus  declined  :  — 

8ing.  some.  Plur. 


N.  aliquis     aliqua     aliquid 

G.  alicujus 

D.  alicui 

A.  aliquem  aliquam  aliquid 

A.  aliquo     aliqua      aliquo 


ediqui  aliquae        sdiqua 

aliquorum  aliquarum  aliquoruxsi 

aliquibus 
aliquos        aliquas         aliqua 

aliquibus 


Note.  —  Aliquis  is  compounded  with  £di-,  old  stem  of  alius, 
but  with  weakened  meaning.  As  an  adjective,  the  form  in  quod  is 
used  instead  of  quid :  as, 

aliquod  bonum,  some  good  thing;  but  — 
aliquid  boni,  something  good  {something  of  good^. 

e.  The  enclitic  -que  added  to  the  indefinite  gives  a  Universal : 
as,  quisque,  every  one ;  ubique,  everywhere  (so  uterque,  either  of 
two,  or  both^.  Of  quisque  the  first  part  is  declined.  In  the  com- 
pound unusquisque,  every  single  one,  both  parts  are  declined,  and 
sometimes  separated  by  other  words.  Quotus  quisque  has  the 
signification  how  many  pray  ?  often  in  a  disparaging  sense. 

f.  The  relative  and  interrogative  have  a  possessive  adjective 
cujus  (a,  um),  whose ;  and  a  patrial  cujas  (cujat-),  of  what  country. 

g.  Quantus,  how  great,  qualis,  of  what  sort,  are  derivative 
adjectives  from  the  same  stem,  and  are  used  as  interrogative  or 
relative,  corresponding  to  the  demonstratives  tantus,  talis. 

Quam,  how,  is  an  accusative  of  the  same  stem,  corresponding 
to  the  adverbial  case-form  tarn,  so. 

h.  Quisquam,  with  ullus,  any,  unquam,  ever,  usquam,  any- 
where, are  chiefly  used  in  negative,  interrogative,  or  conditional 
sentences,  or  after  quam,  than;  sine,  without;  vix,  scarcely. 

i.  Quisnam  is  emphatic  :  pray,  who  ?  Ecquis  and  numquis 
are  compounded  from  the  indefinite  particle  en  and  the  interroga- 
tive num ;  they  mean  not  who,  but  any  :  as, 

ecquis  nos  videt  ?  does  any  one  see  us  f 

num  quid  hoc  dubitas,  do  you  at  all  doubt  this  f 

Correlatives. 

106.  Many  pronouns,  pronominal  adjectives,  and 
adverbs  have  corresponding  forms,  as  demonstrative, 
relative,  interrogative,  and  indefinite.  These  are  called 
Correlatives.    They  are  shown  in  the  following  Table  : 


Correlatives. 

57 

DEMONSTR. 

RELAX. 

INTERROG. 

INDEF.    REL 

INDEF. 

is,  that 

qui 

quis  ? 

quisquis 

aliquis 

tantus,  so  great 

quantus 

quantus  ? 

* 

aliquantus 

talis,  such 

qualis 

qualis  ? 

^ 

ibi,  there 

ubi 

ubi? 

ubiubi 

alicubi 

eo,  thither 

qu5 

quo  ? 

quoquo 

aliquo 

ea,  that  way 

qua 

qua? 

quaqua 

aliqua 

inde,  thence 

unde 

unde  ? 

% 

alicunde 

turn,  then 

quum,  cum 

quando  ? 

* 

aliquando 

tot,  j^  many 

quot 

quot? 

quotquot 

aliquot 

toties,  so  often 

quoties 

quoties  ? 

* 

aliquoties 

*  Compounds  with  -cumque. 

a.  The  forms  tot  (originally  toti),  quot,  aliquot,  totidem,  are 

indeclinable,  and  may  take  any  gender  or  case  :  as, 

per  tot  annos,  tot  proeliis,  tot  imperatSres  (Cic),  so  many 
commanders^  for  so  many  years,  in  so  many  battles. 

b.  The  correlative  of  the  second  member  is  often  to  be  rendered 
simply  as  :  thus, 

tantum  argenti  quantum  aeris,  as  much  silver  as  copper. 

c.  A  frequent  form  of  correlative  is  found  in  the  ablatives  quo 
or  quanto,  by  how  much;  eo  or  tanto,  by  so  much,  used  with 
comparatives  (rendered  in  English  the  .   .  .  the)  :  ^  as, 

quo  magis  conaris,  eo  longius  progrederis,  the  more  you  try, 
the  farther  on  you  get. 

107.  Certain  relative  and  demonstrative  adverbs  are 
used  correlatively,  serving  as  conjunctions:  as, 

ut  (rel.)  .  .  .  ita,  sic  (dem.),  as  {while')  .  .  .  so  (yet). 

tam  (dem.)  .  .  .  quam  (rel.),  so  (as)  .  .  .  as. 

cum  (rel.)  .  .  .  tum  (dem.),  both  .  .  .  and;' while  .  .  .  so  also. 

Compare  et  .  .  .  et,  both  .  .  .  and;  aut  (vel)  .  .  .  aut  (vel), 
either  ...or;  sive  (seu)  .  .  .  sive ;  utrum  .  .  .  an,  whether  .  .  .or. 

Note.  —  For  the  reciprocal  use  of  alius  and  alter,  see  Syntax 
(203). 


1  In  this  phrase  the  is  not  the  definite  article,  but  a  pronominal  adverb,  being 
&e  Anglo-Saxon  instrumental  case,  thy. 


58  Etymology :    Structure  of  the   Verb, 


Chapter  VI.—  Verbs. 

I. -STRUCTURE  OF  THE  VERB. 
Voice,  Mood,  Tense. 

108.  The  inflections  of  the  Verb  denote  Voice,  Mood, 
Tense,  Number,  and  Person. 

a.  The  Voices  are  two,  Active  and  Passive. 

b.  The  Moods  are  four,  Indicative,  Subjunctive,  Imperative, 
and  Infinitive.^ 

c.  The  Tenses  are  six,  viz. :  — 

1.  Present,  Imperfect,  Future  (of  continued  action)  ;   '•^ 

2.  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  Future  Perfect  (of  completed  action).  — 

d.  Person  and  Number.  —  There  are  separate  terminations 
for  each  of  the  three  Persons  —  first,  second,  and  third  —  both 
in  the  singular  and  in  the  plural. 

Noun  and  Adjective  Forms. 

109.  The  following  Noun  and  Adjective  forms  are 
also  included  in  the  structure  of  the  Latin  Verb :  — 

a.  Four  Participles,^  viz. ;  — 

Active :  the  Present  and  Future  Participles  ; 
Passive :  the  Perfect  Participle  and  the  Gerundive.' 

b.  The  Gerund  :  this  is  in  form  a  neuter  noun  of  the  second 
declension,  used  only  in  the  oblique  cases  of  the  singular,  its 
nominative  being  supplied  by  the  Infinitive  (see  114.  N.). 

c.  The  Supine  :  this  is  in  form  a  defective  noun  of  the  fourth 
declension  (see  71.  a). 

Defective  Forms. 

110.  Special  forms  for  some  of  the  tenses  are  wanting 
in  certain  parts  of  the  verb,  viz. :  — 

1  The  Infinitive  is  strictly  a  case  of  an  abstract  noun,  expressing  the  action  of 
the  verb  ;  but  it  plays  so  important  a  part  in  verbal  construction,  that  it  is  properly 
treated  as  a  part  of  the  verb. 

"  The  Participles  are  Adjectives  in  inflection  and  meaning  (see  25.  ^),  but 
have  the  powor  ef  Verbs  in  construction  and  in  distinguishing  time. 

■  The  Gerundive  is  also  used  as  an  adjective,  indicating  necessity  or  duty 
(Me  113.  d).    In  late  use  it  became  a  Future  Passive  Participle. 


Verbs  :    Voice  and  Mood.  59 

a.  Thfr  Subjunctive  mood  wants  the  Future  and  the  Future 
Perfect.-^  In  some  constructions,  these  tenses  are  supplied  by  the 
future  participle  with  corresponding  tenses  of  the  verb  signifying 
TO  BE  :  as,  cum  secuturus  sit,  since  he  will  follow. 

b.  In  the  Passive  voice,  tenses  of  completed  action  (Perfect, 
Pluperfect,  and  Future  Perfect)  are  supplied  by  the  Perfect  Parti- 
ciple with  corresponding  tenses  (present,  imperfect,  and  future)  of 
the  verb  signifying  to  be  :  as,  occisus  est,  he  was  killed, 

c.  In  the  Imperative  moed,  the  only  tenses  are  the  Present  and 
the  Future. 

d.  In  the  Infinitive  mood  only  the  Present  and  the  Perfect  are 
formed  by  inflection.  A  Future  in  the  active  voice  is  formed  by 
the  Future  Participle  with  the  infinitive  signifying  to  be  ;  in  the 
passive,  by  the  Former  Supine  with  iri  (infin.  pass,  of  ire,  to  go). 

Voices. 

111.  The  active  and  passive  Voices  in  Latin  are 
equivalent  to  the  corresponding  English  forms,  except 
that  the  tenses  of  the  passive  are  used  with  more 
exactness.     Thus  — 

a.  In  the  Present :  domus  aedificatur  means,  not  the  house  is 
built,  but  is  [in  course  of]  being  built. 

b.  In  the  Perfect :  domus  aediiicata  est,  the  house  is  built, 
i.  e.  the  building  is  now  completed  ;  or,  the  house  was  built  j  i.  e. 
at  some  time  indicated. 

Note.  —  i.  The  passive  voice  often  has  a  Reflexive  meaning  : 
as,  induitur  vestem,  he  puts  on  his  [own]  clothes. 

2.  Many  verbs  are  only  used  in  the  passive  form,  but  with  an 
active  or  reflexive  meaning.  These  are  called  Deponents,  i.  e., 
as  laying  aside  {deponere)  the  active  form  and  passive  meaning. 

Moods. 

112.  The  Moods  of  the  Latin  verb  are  used  as 
follows  : — 

a.  The  Indicative  Mood  is  used  for  direct  assertions  or  interro- 
gations :  as, 

valesne  ?  valeo,  Are  you  well?  I  am  well. 

1  These  are  wanting,  because  the  original  meaning  and  most  of  the  uses  of  the 
Subjunctive  are  future. 


6o  Etymology :  Structure  of  the   Verb. 

b.  The  Subjunctive  Mood  is  idiomatically  used  in  comjnands^ 
conditions^  and  various  dependent  clauses.  It  is  frequently  trans- 
lated by  the  English  Indicative  ;  sometimes  by  the  Potential,  with 
the  auxiliaries  may^  fnight^  would,  should;  sometimes  by  the 
rare  Subjunctive  ;  sometimes  by  the  Infinitive  ;  and  is  often  used 
for  the  Imperative,  especially  in  prohibitions :  as, 

eamus,  let  us  go. 

si  adesses,  if  you  were  [now]  here. 

cum  venisset,  when  he  had  come. 

adsum  ut  videam,  /  am  here  to  see  {that  I  may  see). 

tu  ne  quaesieris,  do  not  thou  i?iquire. 

nemo  eat  qui  ita  existimet,  there  is  no  one  who  thinks  so^ 

Note.  —  The  Latin  Subjunctive  is  often  translated,  formally,  by  the  English 
potential  forms,  may^  mighty  could,  would,  &c.,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Indica- 
tive, because  the  English  has  no  subjunctive  in  general  use.  But  the  subjunctive 
is  used  in  many  cases  where  we  use  the  indicative ;  and  we  use  the  potential  in 
many  cases  where  the  Latin  employs  a  separate  verb.  Thus,  /  may  -urrite  (except 
when  it  follows  ut,  in  order  that)  is  not  scribam  (subj.),  but  licet  mihi  scri* 
bere ;  /  catt  write  is  possum  scribere ;  /  Tvould  write  is  scribam,  scribe- 
rem,  or  scribere  velim  (vellem);  /  should  write,  if,  &c.,  scriberem  si 
.  .  .  ,  or  (implying  duty)  oportet  me  scribere.  A  few  examples  of  the  use  of 
the  subjunctive  may  be  seen  in  the  following :  — 

1.  beatus  sis,  may  you  be  blessed. 

2.  ne  abeat,  let  him  not  depart. 

3.  quid  morer,  why  should  I  delay  ? 

4.  sunt  qui  putent,  there  are  some  who  think. 

5.  imperat  ut  scribam,  he  orders  me  to  write. 

6.  nescio  quid  scribam,  /  know  not  what  to  write. 

7.  licet  t^,you  may  go  ;  cave  cadas,  don't  fall. 

8.  vereor  ne  eat,  I  fear  he  will  go. 

9.  vereor  ut  eat,  I  fear  he  will  not  go. 

10.  si  moneam  audiat  (pres.),  if  I  should  warn,  he  would  hear. 

11.  si  vocarem  audlret  (imperf.),  if  J  werc\xiovi\  calling,  he  would  hear. 

12.  quae  cum  dixisset  abiit,  when  he  had  said  this,  he  went  away. 

c.  The  Imperative  is  used  for  exhortation  or  command;  but 
its  place  is  often  supplied  by  the  Subjunctive. 

d.  The  Infinitive  is  used  chiefly  as  an  indeclinable  noun,  as 
the  subject  or  object  of  another  verb  ;  but  in  special  constructions 
it  takes  the  place  of  the  Indicative,  and  may  be  translated  by  that 
mood  in  English  (see  "  Indirect  Discourse  "). 

Note.  —  For  the  Syntax  of  the  Moods,  see  pp.  184-204. 


The   Verb:   Participles.  6't 

Participles. 

113.  The  Participles  of  the  Latin  verb  are  used  as 
follows :  — 

a.  The  Present  participle  (ending  in  ns)  has  commonly  the 
same  meaning  and  use  as  the  EngHsh  participle  in  ing  :  as,  vo- 
cana,  calling;  legentes,  reading.     (For  its  inflection  see  85.) 

b.  The  Future  participle  (ending  in  -urus)  is  oftenest  used  as 
an  adjective,  to  express  what  is  likely  or  about  to  happen :  as, 

urbs  est  casura,  the  city  is  about  to  fall.^ 
It  is  also  used,  more  rarely,  to  express  purpose  :  as, 
venit  auditurus,  he  came  to  hear. 

(c.  The  Perfect  participle  is  used  to  form  certain  tenses  of  the  J 
passive,  and  often  has  simply  an  adjective  meaning :  as,  / 

vocatua    eat,   he  ivas   {has  been)   called j  tectua,   sheltered; 

acceptua,  acceptable;  ictua,  having  been  struck. 
Note.  —  There  is  no  perfect  active  or  present  passive  participle  in  Latin.  The 
perfect  participle  of  deponents,  however,  is  generally  used  in  an  active  sense,  as 
secutus,  having  followed.  In  other  cases  some  different  construction  is  used  for 
these  missing  participles  :  as,  cum  veiiisset,  having  come  (when  he  had  come) ; 
equitatn  praemisso^  having  sent  forward  the  cavalry  (the  cavalry  having 
been  sent  forward) ;  dum  verberatur,  while  being  struck  (=  TVTrroMej'o?). 

d.  The  Gerundive  (ending  in  ndus)  has,  as  an  adjective,  the 
meaning  ought  or  must :  as,  audiendus  est,  he  must  be  heard. "^ 

But,  in  the  oblique  cases,  it  is  oftener  to  be  translated  as  if  it 
were  an  active  participle,  governing  the  word  it  agrees  with :  as, 
ad  petendam  pacem,  to  seek  peace. 

e.  The  Participles  may  all  be  used  as  simple  adjectives,  and  the 
present  and  perfect  participles  are  sometimes  compared  as  adjec- 
tives :  as,  amantior,  more  fond;  dilectisaimus,  dearest. 

f.  The  Present  and  Perfect  participles  are  (like  adjectives)  often 
used  as  nouns,  especially  in  the  plural :  as,  regentea,  rulers  (those 
ruling) ;  mortui,  the  dead. 

g.  As  an  adjective,  the  participle  is  often  used  to  describe  some 
special  circumstance  :  as, 

morituri  vos  salutamus,  we  at  the  point  of  death  salute  you. 

1  In  this  construction  it  is  used  with  the  tenses  of  the  verb  TO  be,  forming 
what  is  called  the  "  First  Periphrastic  Conjugation  "  (see  page  yj). 

2  The  Gerundive,  used  as  a  predicate  with  the  verb  to  be,  forms  the  "  Second 
Periphrastic  Conjugation." 


7, 


62  Etymology :    Structure  of  the   Verb. 

Oernnd  and  Supine* 

114.  The  Gerund  and  Supine  are  used  as  follows :  — 

a.  The  Gerund  is,  in  form,  the  neuter  singular  of  the  Gerund- 
ive. It  is  a  verbal  noun,  corresponding  to  the  Enghsh  "  participial 
infinitive  "  in  -ing  :  as,  loquendi  causa, yi?r  the  sake  of  speaking. 

Note.  —  In  this  use  the  Gerund  is  found  only  in  the  oblique 
cases.     The  nominative  is  supplied  by  the  Infinitive  :  as, 

scribere  est  utile,  writing  {to  write)  is  useful;  but, 
ars  scribendi,  the  art  of  writing. 

b.  The  Supine  is  in  form  a  noun  of  the  Fourth  declension, 
found  only  in  the  accusative  (ending  in  turn,  sum)  and  ablative 
(ending  in  tu,  sfl),  which  are  sometimes  called  the  Former  and 
the  Latter  Supine.  The  former  is  used  after  verbs  and  the  latter 
after  adjectives:  as, 

1 .  venit  spectatum,  he  came  to  see. 

2.  mirabile  dictu,  wonderful  to  tell. 

Tenses. 

115.  The  tenses  of  the  verb  are  of  two  classes,  viz. : 

1.  Of  continued  action. 

1 .  Present  :  scribo,  /  am  writing. 

2.  Imperfect:  acifbehsini,  / was  writing. 

3.  Future:  acnhsua^i,  / sha// wrife. 

2.  Of  completed  action. 

4.  Perfect  :  scrips!,  /  have  written. 

5.  Pluperfect:  scxiTpBeiaxn,  /  had  written. 

6.  Future  Perfect:  BciipBexo,  I  shall  have  written. 

a.  The  tenses  have,  in  general,  the  same  meaning  as  the  coi^ 
responding  tenses  in  English  ;  but  are  in  some  cases  distinguished 
more  accurately  in  their  use.     Thus  — 

1.  The  Future  or  Future  Perfect  is  used  where  we  may  use  the 
Present  in  subordinate  clauses  :  as, 

si  quid  habebo  dabo,  if  I  have  [shall  have]  any  thing,  I  will  give. 
cum  venero  scribam,  when  I  come  [shall  have  come],  /  will  write. 

2.  The  Present  and  Imperfect  are  used  to  express  continued 
action  where  English  uses  tenses  of  completed  action :  as, 

jam  diu  aegrSto,  /  have  long  been  [and  still  am]  sick. 
Here  the  Perfect,  aegrotavi,  would  imply  that  I  am  now  well. 


\ 


Tenses  ;  Personal  Endings,  63 

b.  The  Perfect  and  Imperfect  are  both  used  to  denote  past 
time  ;  the  former  to  tell  a  simple  fact,  the  latter  to  describe  a 
continued  or  customary  action,  or  a  condition  of  things}     Thus  — 

Perfect  :  scripsit,  he  wrote. 

Imperfect  :  scribebat,  he  was  writing,  or  used  to  write. 

c.  The  Perfect  has  two  separate  uses,  distinguished  as  definite 
and  historical,  corresponding  to  the  Perfect  (compound)  and  the 
simple  Past  (or  preterite)  in  English  :  as, 

scripsit,  he  has  written  (definite)  ;  he  wrote  (historical). 

d.  The  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  Mood  are  chiefly  used  in 
dependent  clauses,  following  the  rule  of  the  Sequence  of  Tenses  ; 
but  have  also  special  idiomatic  uses  (see  Syntax,  286). 

Personal  Endings. 

116.  Verbs  have  regular  terminations  for  each  of  the 
three  Persons,^  both  singular  and  plural,  active  and 
passive,  viz. :  — 

Sing.  ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

1.  m, o,  or  i  ^ :  am-o,  /  love.  r  :  amo-r,  / am  loved. 

2.  B :  ama-s,  thou  lovest.  ris  or  re  :  ama-ris,  thou  art  loved. 

3.  t  :*  ama-t,  he  loves.      tur  :  ama-tur,  he  is  loved. 

Plur.  ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

1.  mus  :  ama-mus,  we  love,  mur  :       ama-mur,  we  are  loved. 

2.  tis  :  ama-tis,  you  love,    mini  :       ama-mini,  you  are  loved, 

3.  nt :  ama-nt,  they  love,   ntur  :       ama-ntur,  they  are  loved. 

'  In  Latin,  and  in  the  languages  derived  from  Latin  (as  Italian  and  French), 
there  are  two  past  tenses, — the  Perfect  or  Preterite  {aorist)  which  merely  states 
ih-iit  the  fact  took  place  ;  and  the  Imperfect,  which  is  used  for  description^  or  to 
indicate  that  the  action  was  in  progress:  as,  longius prosequi  VETun,  quod  loci 
naturam  ignorabat  (B.  G.  v.  9).  In  the  Northern  languages  (Germanic  or 
Gothic,  including  English),  the  same  tense  serves  for  both, 

2  These  terminations  are  fragments  of  old  Pronouns,  whose  signification  is 
thus  added  to  that  of  the  Verb-stem  (compare  page  14,  Note  i). 

8  The  present  indicative  of  the  active  voice  has  lost  the  m,  and  ends  in  the 
modified  stem-vowel  o,  except  in  sum  and  inqjiam.  Here  o  stands  for  m 
blended  in  sound  with  a  preceding  vowel  {amo  =  ama-m).  The  perfect,  future 
perfect,  and  the  future  in  bo  have  also  lost  the  m. 

4  All  Latin  words  ending  in  t,  except  at  (ast),  aut,  sat,  et,  -met,  posf,  tot; 
quot,  ut,  caput,  and  their  compounds,  are  verbs  in  the  third  person ;  all  in  nt  are  in 
the  3d  person  plural.  In  dumtaxat,  licet,  and  the  indefinite  pronouns  in  -libet 
the  meanings  of  the  verbs  are  disguised  (See  also  8,  p.  3). 


64  Etymology :   Forms  of  the   Verb. 

a.  The  perfect  Indicative  (active  voice)  has  the  special  termina- 
tions :  — 

Sing.   2.  -sti:  zm^cw-i-sti^  thou  lovedsf. 
Plur.  2.  -stis :  amav-i-atis,  you  loved. 

3.  -erunt  or  -ere :  amav-emnt  (ere),  they  loved. 

b.  The  Imperative  has  the  following  terminations ; 

Sing.  ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

2.  — :  ama,  love  thou.  re  :      ama-re,  be  thou  loved. 

3.  to  :  ama-to,  let  him  love.         tor  :    ama-tor,  let  him  be  loved. 
Plur. 

2.  te,  tote  :  ama-te,  love  ye.  mini  :  ama-mini,  be  ye  loved. 

3.  nto  :  ama-nto,  let  them  love,   ntor  :  ama-ntor,  let  them  be  loved. 

2.-F0RMS   OF  THE  VERB. 

117.  All  Latin  Verb-forms  are  made  up  of  three 
parts,  viz. :  — 

1.  The  Root  (see  22)  ;  often  variously  modified,  so  as  to  form 

what  is  called  a  Stem. 

2.  The  Signs  of  Tense  or  Mood. 

3.  The  Personal  Endings. 

Thus  in  the  word  voca-vi-t,  the  Root  is  voc,  modified  into 
the  verb-stem  voca-,  which  by  the  addition  of  ui  (vi)  becomes  the 
perfect  tense  vocavi;  and  to  this  is  added  the  personal  ending 
(t)  of  the  third  person  singular. 

Nature  and  Origin  of  Verb-Forms. 

In  the  Indicative  and  Subjunctive  Present,  in  the  Imperative,  and,  in  some 
cases,  in  the  Future,  the  terminations  are  added  directly  to  a  modified  form  of  the 
Root,  called  the  Present  Stem.  This  Stem,  in  three  out  of  four  methods  of 
conjugation  (the  ist,  2d,  and  4th  conjugations),  also  appears  in  all  parts  of  the 
verb,  including  the  noun  and  adjective  forms,  and  is  accordingly  called  the  Verb- 
Stem.  In  the  Present  Subjunctive  of  all  the  conjugations,  and  in  the  Future  of 
the  3d  and  4th,  however,  there  are  modifications  of  the  verb-stem  of  various  origin. I 

In  the  Perfect  in  a  few  verbs,  the  terminations  are  added  directly  to  a 
different  modification  of  the  Root,  called  the  Perfect  Stem  :  as  in  do^  dcdi. 

1  These  modifications,  in  the  ist  conjugation,  and  the  Future  of  the  3d  and 
4th,  are  caused  by  the  addition  of  a  verbal  form  (optative  from  the  root  ya,  to  go)  to 
the  Stem.  In  the  other  cases,  their  origin  is  not  certain  ;  but  it  is  supposed  to  be 
the  same  as  that  of  the  stem-vowels  themselves,  corresf>onding  to  that  fouad 
in  the  Greek  Subjunctive.    (See  Note,  p.  72  ;  p.  74  :  ia6.  a-d). 


Note  on  the   Verb- Sterns.  6$ 

All  other  true  verb-forms  are  compounded  with  a  suffix  (auxiUary),  originally  a 
verb,  which  already  contained  the  personal  endings  :  as  vocd-bat^  vocd-bit,  vocd-ret, 
vocd-verat,  vocd-verit,  vocd-visset.  Thus  the  signs  of  mood  and  tense  appear  to 
be  inserted  between  the  Verb-stem  (or  Root)  and  the  personal  endings,  though 
strictly  they  were  not  so  inserted.  But  the  first  person  of  the  Perfect,  whether 
formed  by  a  modification  of  the  root  as  in  de-di^  or  a  verbal  suffix  as  in  vocd-vi, 
man-si,  loses  its  final  vowel,  and  is  treated  as  a  new  stem,  to  which  other  verbal 
suffixes  are  added,  likewise  containing  the  personal  endings. 

The  Perfect  and  Future  Participles,  and  the  Supine,  though  strictly  noun- 
forms  with  separate  suffixes,  agree  in  having  the  first  letter  of  their  suffix  (t)  the 
same,  with  the  same  phonetic  changes,  as  cds-um  (for  cad-tum),  cds-iirus. 

These  forms  naturally  divide  into  three  groups,  in  which  in  fact  they  appeared 
to  tlie  Romans  themselves,  who  had  very  early  become  unconscious  of  their  deriva- 
tion. Hence,  verbs  may  be  formed  upon  three  Stems  (partly  real,  partly  supposed) 
by  adding  Verbal  Endings,  which  include  signs  of  Tense  and  Mood  as  well  as 
Personal  Endings,  and  (in  the  case  of  the  Infinitive  and  Participles)  even  noun 
and  adjective  terminations.  These  Stems  are  the  Present,  the  Perfect,  and 
the  Supine  Stem. 

Verb-£ndings. 

118.  The  scheme  of  Verb-Endings,^  as  they  are  formed 
by  suffixes,  together  with  personal  endings,  is  as  follows  : 

1  The  origin  and  meaning  of  some  of  these  verb-endings  may  be  given  as 
follows.  The  suffix  bam  is  an  imperfect  of  bhu,  which  appears  in  fui,  futurus, 
fto,  the  Greek  </>uw,  and  English  be;  —  rem  (for  sem)  is  an  optative  or  subjunc- 
tive imperfect  of  es,  which  appears  in  sum,  einC,  am,  &c.  ;  — bo  is  a  future,  and 
vi  a  perfect,  of  bhu  ; — si  is  a  perfect  of  es,  and  is  kindred  with  the  aorist- 
ending  a-a,  though  not  of  the  same  formation  ;  —  erim  is  an  optative  form  or 
subjunctive  present  of  es,  the  same  form  originally  as  sim  ;  —  ero  (for  es>io)  is 
the  future  of  esse  ;  issem  =  essem ;  isse  =  esse.  Thus  these  terminations  are 
seen  to  have  the  same  force  as  Auxiliary  verbs  in  English. 

The  i  of  the  Perfect,  which  in  early  Latin  is  always  long  (ei,  i,  e)  except 
before  mus^  is  of  doubtful  origin.  It  is  probably  in  all  cases  a  part  of  the  stem, 
as  it  is  in  dedi,  steti^  where  it  takes  the  place  of  the  vowel  a.  In  the  suffixes 
vi  (=fui)  and  si  (=Skr.  dsa),  and  in  the  perfects  of  consonant-roots,  it  seems 
to  be,  but  probably  is  not,  a  mere  connecting  vowel.  The  s  before  ti  and 
tis  is  also  anomalous.  Most  scholars  regard  it  as  a  remnant  of  es  ;  but  it  may  be, 
like  the  others,  of  pronominal  origin. 

The  Passive  is  a  peculiar  Latin  middle  (or  reflexive)  form,  made  by  adding 
se  to  the  forms  of  the  active  voice,  with  some  abrasion  of  their  endings  (the 
original  form  of  se,  sva,  like  self,  was  not  limited  to  the  third  person).  Thus 
amor  =  amo-se,  amaris  =  amasi-se,  amatur  =  amati-se.  The  above  view  seems 
the  most  probable,  in  spite  of  some  objections.  The  ending  mini  in  the  second 
person  plural  of  the  passive  is  a  remnant  of  the  participial  form  found  in  the 
Greek  -/btevos,  supplanting  the  proper  form,  which  does  not  appear  in  Latin. 


66 


Etymology :   Forms  of  the   Verb, 


i.— Verbal  Foimis, 


ACTIVE. 

PASSIVE. 

INDIC. 

SUBJ.       Present.    INDIC.                    SUBJ. 

Sing.  I. 

o' 

•C«i^ 

ml 

or 

r 

2. 

s 

^BZ 

s 

ris  ^r  re             |)^ 

ris  or  re 

3. 

t 

.1-- 

t 

tur                    ^"5 

tur 

Plur.  I. 

mus 

^.. 

mus 

mur                   .^  c 

mur 

2. 

tis 

goo 

tis 

mini                   |"i 

mini 

3. 

nt 

^:i. 

nt 

ntur                  !^ 

ntur 

Imperfect. 

Sing.  I. 

bam' 

rem 

bar                          rer 

2. 

bas 

res 

baris  (re)                reris  (re) 

3. 

bat 

ret 

batur                        retur 

Plur.  1. 

bamus 

remus 

bamur                       remur 

2. 

batis 

retis 

bamini                      remini 

3. 

bant 

rent 

Fut 

bantur                      rentur 

are. 

i.  ii. 

iii.  iv. ' 

/**  • 

i.  ij.                  lii  iv. 

Sing,  I. 

bo 

«m' 

bor             ar^ 

- 

2. 

bis 

^s 

beris  (re)  irxs  (re) 

1=1 

3- 

bit 

ei 

bitur           aur 

>^.« 

P/wr.  I. 

bimus 

/mus 

■^i  «    "5 

bimur         /mur 

15 

2. 
3. 

bitis 
bunt 

ais 
^nt 

lj|l 

biminl        /mini 
buntur       ^ntur 

Perf 

ect. 

^/w^.  I. 

1 

erim 

*""^)    iest               sit 

2. 

isti 

eris 

3. 

it 

erit 

/•/«r.  I. 
2. 

imus 
istis 

erimus 
eritis 

-ti  rtie   (s"'"us           simus 

*\^\^^' -  estis              sitis 

^^^      i  sunt              sint 

3- 

erunt  or  ere     erint 

Plupe 

rfect. 

Sing.  I. 

eram 

issem 

-tus(ta,  ^^""^"^            ^^^!"^ 
\„,^xWeras              esses 

*"'^)    lerat              esset 

2. 

eras 

isses 

3- 

erat 

isset 

Plur.  I. 

eramus             issemus 

♦;  /to^   (eramus         essemus 

ti\      \  ^^^^'^            ^^^^^'^ 
^      ( erant            essent 

2. 

eratis 

issetis 

3- 

erant 

issent 

Future 

Perfect. 

^/«^.  I. 
2. 
3- 

ero 
eris 
erit 

-tus(.a.  1^™ 

/'/vr.  I. 
2. 

erimus 
eritis 

'^'^      ( erunt 

3- 

erint 

For  some  changes  of  Stem  see  126. 


Forms  of  the   Verb ;   The   Verb  esse. 


67 


Imperative. 

Sing.  2. 
3- 

to 

re 

tor 

Plur,  2. 

te,  tote 

mini 

3. 

nto 

ntor 

Pres.   re  (Pres.  stem) 
Perf.   isse  (Perf.  stem) 
Fut.    turus  (a,  um)  esse 


2.^  Noun  and  Adjective  Forms, 

Infinitive. 

i.  ii.  iv.  ri,  iii.  1  {old  rier,  ier) 


tus  (ta,  turn)  esse 
turn  Irl  (see  147.  c) 


Participle. 


Pres.   ns,  ntis 

Perf.    

Fut.    turus,  a,  um 


tus,  ta,  turn 
Ger.   ndus,  a,  um 


Supine,   turn,  tu 


SUM    and  its  Compounds. 

119.  The  verb  sum,^  to  be,  is  both  irregular  and  de- 
fective, having  no  gerund  or  supine,  and  no  participle 
but  the  future. 


1  The  root  of  the  verb  sum  is  es-,  which  in  the  imperfect  is  changed  to  er- 
(see  II.  a),  and  in  many  cases  is  shortened  to  s-.  Some  of  its  modifications,  as 
found  in  several  languages  more  or  less  distinctly  related  to  Latin,  may  be  seen  in 
the  following  Table; — the  "Indo-European"  being  the  primitive  or  theoretic 
form,  and  the  form  sydm  corresponding  to  the  Latin  sim  (stem) :  — 


Ind-Eur. 

Sanskrit. 

Greek. 

Latin. 

Lithuanian. 

as-mi 

as-mi 

sydm  (opt.) 

C/i/itt 

s-um 

es-mi 

as-si 

as-i 

syds 

eVart 

es 

es-i 

as-ti 

as-ti 

sydt 

iari 

es-t 

es-ti 

as-masi 

s-mas 

sydma 

fV/itV 

s-umus 

es-me 

as-tasi 

s-tha 

sydta 

eVre 

es-tis 

es-te 

as-auti 

s-anti 

syus 

eVWt 
t  Old  Form 

s-unt 

es-ti 

The  Perfect  and  Supine  stems,  fui,  futuro-,  are  kindred  with  the  Greek  ^^v,  and 
with  the  English  be. 

The  present  participle,  which  should  be  sens  (compare  Sanskrit  sanf),  appears 
in  that  form  in  ab-sens,  prae-sens ;  and  as  ens  (compare  ^v)  in  pot-ens. 
The  simple  form  ens  is  sometimes  found  in  late  or  philosophical  Latin  as  a  parti- 
ciple or  abstract  noun,  in  the  forms  ens,  being  ;  entia,  things  -which  are. 


6S 


Etymology:    The  Verb  esse. 


PRESENT. 

Principal   Parts  :  sum 

Indicative. 
Sing.  1.   sum,  I  am. 

2.  Ss,  thou  art  {you  are). 

3.  est,  he  {she,  it)  is. 
Plur.  I .   sumus,  we  are. 

2.  estis,  j<?«  are. 

3.  sunt,  they  are. 

Sing.  I.  eram, /was. 

2.  eras,  you  were. 

3.  erat,  he  {she,  it)  was. 
Plur.  I .  eramus,  we  were. 

2.  eiatiB,you  were. 

3.  erant,  they  were. 


INFIN.       PERF.       PUT.    PART. 

esse    fai    fatums. 

Present.  Subjunctive. 

sim,  7nay  I  be  f^ 

sis,  be  thou,  or  may  you  be. 

sit,  let  him  be  {may  he  be). 

simus,  let  us  be. 

sitis,  be  ye,  or  may  ye  be. 

sint,  let  them  be  {may  they  be). 
Imperfect. 

essem,  /  should  be. 

esses,  j^«  would  be. 

esset,  he  would  be. 

essemus,  we  should  be. 

essetis,  you  would  be, 

essent,  they  would  be. 
Future. 


Sing  I. 

ero,  /  shall  be. 

[futurus  sim  see  note,  p.  'j']'\ 

2. 

enB,you  will  be. 

3. 

erit,  he  will  be. 

Plur.  I. 

erimus,  we  shall  be. 

2. 

^x\\^,you  will  be. 

3- 

erunt,  they  will  be. 

Per 

feet. 

Sing.  I. 

fui,  /  was  {have  been). 

fuerim  (see  Note  below) 

2. 

i\A&M,you  were. 

fueris 

3- 

fuit,  he  was. 

fuerit 

Plur.  I. 

fuimus,  we  were. 

fuerimus 

2. 

fui8tis,j/^«  were. 

fueritis 

3- 

fuerunt,fu6re,  they  were. 

fuerint 

1  The  translations  of  the  subjunctive  here  given  show  the  most  frequent  mean- 
ings of  their  forms  ivJun  used  independently.  For  the  numerous  dependent 
meanings  of  the  subjunctive,  see  Syntax.  The  most  common  may  be  seen  in  the 
following  table  :  — 

1.  sit,  let  him  be  (in  apodosis,  he  would  bt)',  si  sit  (in  protasis),  if 

he  should  be  ;  cum  sit,  since  he  is. 

2.  eftset,  he  would  be :  si  esset,  if  he  were ;  cum  esset,  when  (or 

since)  he  was. 

3.  fnerit,  suppose  he  was  (or  has  been) ;  si  fuerit,  if  he  should  have 

been  ;  cum  fuerit,  since  he  was ;  ne  fueris  (prohib. ),  be  thou  not. 
;.   fulfwetf  he  would  have  been;  si  fuisset,  if  he  had  been;  cum 
fuisset,  when  (or  since)  he  had  been. 


The   Verb  esse  and  its  Compoutids, 


6g 


Pluperfect. 


Sing.  I. 

2. 
3. 

IHur.  I. 
2. 
3- 

Sing.  I. 
2. 

3- 

Plur.i. 

2. 

3- 


fueram,  /  had  been. 
fueras,  you  had  been. 
fuerat,  he  had  been. 
fueramus,  we  had  been. 
fueratis,  j^/^  had  been. 
fuerant,  they  had  been. 


fuissem,  /  should  have  been. 
fuisses,  you  would  have  been. 
fuisset,  he  would  have  been. 
fuissemus,  we  should  have  been. 
fuissetis,  you  would  have  been. 
fuissent,  they  would  have  been. 


Future  Perfect, 
fuero,  I  shall  have  been. 
fneiia,  you  will  have  been. 
fuerit,  he  will  have  been. 
fuerimus,  we  shall  have  been. 
fueritis,  you  will  have  been. 
fuerint,  they  will  have  been. 


Imperative. 

Present.  Ss,  be  thou.  este,  be  ye. 

Future,    esto^  thou  shall  be.  esto^.e,  ye  shall  be.    , 

esto,  he  shall  be-  sunto,  they  shall  be. 

Infinitive. 
Present,    esse,  to  be. 
Perfect,    fuisse,  to  have  been. 
Future,     fore  or  futurus  esse,  to  be  about  to  be. 
Future  Participle,   futurus,  a,  um,  about  to  be. 

Rare    Forms.  —  Indicative:  Future,  escit.,  escunt  (strictly  an 
^     inchoative  present).     Subjunctive  :  Present,  siem.,  sies,  siet,  sientj 
fuam^fuas^  fuat^  fuant;  Y^ri^ctf  fuvimus ;  Pluperfect, /«vw^/. 
For  essem,  tXo..^  forem ,  /oris,  foret,  forent  are  often  used. 

^120.  The  forms  of  the  verb  sum  appear  in  the  follow- 
ing compounds  :  — 

a.  Sum  is  compounded,  without  any  change  of  inflection,  with 
the  prepositions  ab,  ad,  de,  in,  inter,  ob,  prae,  pro  (prod),  sub, 
super.  In  the  compound  prodesse,  to  profit,  pro  retains  its 
original  d  when  followed  by  e  :  as,  prosum,  prodes,  pr5dest, 
prosumus,  prodestis,  prosunt. 

b.  It  is  also  compounded  with  the  adjective  potis  or  pote,  able^ 
in  the  verb  possum ;  its  inflection,  with  that  of  prosum,  is  given 
in  the  following :  — 


70  Etymology :    The  Regular    Verb, 


Present. 


proBum,  /  help.  pr5sim 

prodes  prosis 

prodest  prosit 

prosumus  prosimua 

prodestis  prositis 

prosunt  prosint 


poB|sum,  /  can.  possim 

potes,  you  can.  possis 

potest,  he  can.  possit 

possumus,  we  can.  possimus 

potestis,  j/^«  can.  possitis 

poasunt,  they  can.  possint 

Imperfect, 
poteram,  /  could.       possem        |       proderam  prodessem 

Future. 

potero,  /  shall  be  able.  \       prodero,  /  shall  help. 

Perfect. 

potui,  /  could.  potuerim     |       profai,  /  helped,    profuerim 

Pluperfect. 

potueram  potuissem  |       profueram  profuissem 

Future  Perfect, 
potugro,  /  shall  have  been  able.    \       profugro,  /  shall  have  helped. 

Imperative. 
I       prodes,  prSdesto,  &c. 

Infinitive. 

Pr.  posse       Perf.  potuisse      Pr.  prodesse    Perf.  profuisse 

Participles, 
potens  (adj.),/d7w^^«/.  |       ^xofoXxiran^,  about  to  help. 


3.-THE    REGULAR   VERB. 
The   Three   Stems. 

121.  The  parts  of  the  Latin  verb  may  be  formed  upon 
three  different  stems,^  called  the  Present,  the  Perfect, 
and  the  Supine  Stem  (see  117). 

a.  The  tenses  of  continued  action.,  both  active  and  passive, 
together  with  the  Gerund  and  Gerundive,  are  formed  upon  the 
Present  Stem,  and  collectively  are  called  the  Present  System. 

b.  The  tenses  oi  completed  action  in  the  active  voice  are  formed 
upon  the  Perfect  Stem  (Perfect  System). 

c.  The  Perfect  and  Future  Participles  and  the  Supine  are  formed 
upon  the  Supine  Stem^  (Supine  System). 

1  In  most  verbs  of  the  ist,  2d,  and  4th  conjugations,  the  Present  Stem  is  used  as 
the  Verb-Stem,  from  which  the  others  are  derived  in  the  manner  hereafter  shown. 

2  Strictly  these  have  no  common  stem,  but  are  formed  with  special  suffixes 
CtOi)  turo-,  tu-).  As,  however,  the  form  to  which  they  are  added  is  the  same 
for  Aaeh,  and  as  the  suffixes  all  begin  with  t,  it  is  usual  to  give  the  name  su^im' 


The  Four  Conjugations.  7I 

The  Four  Conjugations. 

122.  There  are  in  Latin  four  principal  forms  of  Present 
Stems,  ending  respectively  in  a,  5,  e,  i.  With  this 
difference  of  stem  most  of  the  other  differences  of 
conjugation  coincide. 

a.  Verbs  are  accordingly  classed  in  four  regular  Conjugations, 
distinguished  by  the  stem-vowel  which  appears  before  -re  in  the 
Present  Infinitive  Active. 

b.  The  Principal  Parts  of  a  verb  which  determine  its  conju^ 
gation  throughout  are  — 

1.  The  Present  Indicative  \%\iO^'v!\g\h^  present  stem 

2.  The  Present  Infinitive  >      and  the  conjugation ; 

3.  The  Perfect  Indicative,  showing  tho.  perfect  stem ; 

4.  The  Supine,  showing  the  supine  stem. 

c.  The  regular  forms  of  the  conjugation  are  seen  in  the  following : 

1.  amo,  amare,  amavi,  amatum,  to  love. 
Present  and  Verb-stem,  amd-^  Perfect  stem,  amdv-,  Supine  stem,  amdt-. 

2.  deleo,  delere,  delevi,  deletum,  to  destroy. 
Present  and  Verb-stem,  dele-,  Perfect  stem,  delev-^  Supine  stem,  delet-. 

3.  tego,  tegSre,  texi,  tectum,  to  cover. 
Root  TEG  :  Present  stem,  tegl^-,  Perfect  stem,  tex-,  Supine  stem,  tect-. 

4.  audio,  audire,  audivi,  auditum,  to  hear. 
Present  and  Verb-stem,  audi-,  Perfect  stem,  audtv-,  Supine  stem,  audit-. 

In  the  second  conjugation,  however,  the  characteristic  e  rarel)) 
appears  in  the  perfect  and  supine  :  thus  the  type  of  this  conjuga 
tion  is  —  2.  moneo,  monere,  monui,  monitum,  to  warn. 

d.  In  many  verbs  the  principal  parts  take  the  forms  of  two  ot 
more  different  conjugations  (See  134,  p.  ^"J^  :    as, 

1.  2.  domo,  domare,  domui,  domitum,  to  subdue. 

2.  3.  maneo,  manere,  mansi,  mansum,  to  remain. 

3.  4.  peto,  petere,  petivi,  petitum,  to  seek. 

4.  3.  vincio,  vincire,  vinxi,  vinctum,  to  bind. 
In  these  the  conjugation  is  denoted  by  the  first  ox  present  stem. 

Note.  —  The  conjugation  of  verbs  used  only  in  the  Passive 
(deponents)  is  determined  by  the  passive  form  of  the  infinitive ; 
thus  patior,  pati,  paBsus  is  of  the  Third  conjugation. 

stem  to  the  form  in  t.  The  participle  in  to-  corresponds  to  the  Greek  verbal  tos-j 
that  in  turo-  is  a  development  of  the  noun  of  agency  ending  in  -tor  (as  victor, 
Tictums) ;  that  in  tu-  is  an  abstract  noun  of  the  fourth  declension  (see  125). 


72  Etymology :  The  Regular  Verb. 

Present   Stem. 

123.  The  Present  Stem  is  formed  from  the  Root  in 
all  regular  verbs  in  one  of  the  following  ways  :  ^  — 

a.  In  the  First,  Second,  and  Fourth  conjugations,  by  adding  a 
long  vowel  (a,  e.  i)  to  the  Root  whose  vowel  is  sometimes  changed  : 
as,  vocd-re  (voc),  mone-re  (men,  orig.  man),  sopi-re  (sop). 

^.  In  the  Third  conjugation,  by  adding  a  short  vowel  (6,  I)  : 
as,  teg^-re,  all-tis     This  may  be  preceded  — 

1.  By  «, /,  J<:,  or  >/.- *  as,  te?n-ne-re  (tem),  cre-sce-re  (cre), 

2.  By  i,  which  in  most  forms  disappears  in  inflection  (see  126.  c.)  : 

as,  fug-i-o,  fug-S-re  (fug).* 

c.  The  root  may  also  be  changed  — 

1.  By  lengthening  the  vowel  :  as,  dic-e-re  (dic),  caed-e-re  (cad). 

2.  By  reduplication  :  as,  gi-gn-e-re  (gen). 

3.  By  inserting  m  or  n  (nasal)  :  2iS,  Jind-e-re  (fid)  ;  tang-e-re  (tag). 

d.  Some  verbs  are  formed  from  a  noun-stem  irregularly  treated 
as  a  Root :  as,  statu-e-re  {status),  aestuare  (aestu-s). 

e.  A  few  isolated  forms  have  the  simple  root :  as,  fer-rCy  fer-t; 
esse,  vel-le,  vul-t.    A  few  have  roots  ending  in  a  vowel. 

Perfect  Stem. 

124.  The  Perfect  Stem  *  is  formed  as  follows :  — 

'  The  so-called  *  *  connecting  vowel ' '  is  really  a  part  of  the  stem.  The  long  vow- 
els rt,  ?,  ?,  of  the  First,  Second^  and  Fourth  conjugations,  are  different  corruptions 
of  a  suffix  AYA,  which  in  the  original  language  was  added  to  Roots  in  one  form  of 
Present  Stems.  The  ?  of  tlie  Third  conjugation  comes  from  an  original  A,  or  some 
other  suffix  ending  in  a  added  to  the  Root  to  form  other  kinds  of  Present  Stems 
{fero  =  bhardmi.  fcrimtis  =  bharamas) :  as,  cap'to^  iollo  (VA),  temno  (NA),  mitto 
(TA).    These  suffixes  may  be  traced  in  the  following  parallel  inflections  :  — 

spec-i-o 

spec-is 

spec-i-t 

spec-i-mus 

spec-i-tis 

spec-i-unt 

In  all  other  cases  where  there  appears  to  be  a  connecting  vowel,  it  comes  from  a 
verb-stem  being  used  irregularly  as  a  Root,  — just  as  in_/f//.r/  (root  fig,  present 
fingo\  the  N  of  the  present  has  intruded  into  the  perfect:  as  in  soni-tus^ 
moni-tus^  ori-tiirus  (compare  or-tus :  so  domi-tor  compared  with  orator)  \ 
feri-mus  (compare /tr/),  edi-mus  (compare  est  =  edt).  ^  K%,  pel-io  iot  pel-yo. 
»  For  the  verbs  thus  formed,  see  p.  83.  The  i  stands  for  an  original  y  sound, 
*  The  final  i  of  the  Perfect  is  probably  to  be  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  stem. 
Its  origin,  however,  is  doubtful ;  and  it  may  be  more  convenient  in  practice  to 
lake  for  the  Stem  the  part  preceding  the  tense  endings  »,  eram,  ero,  &c. 


vach-ay5-mi 
vach-aya-si 
vach-aya-ti 

voc\a)-o 

voc-S-s 

voc-a-t 

2.  vah-a-mi 
vah-a-si 
vah-a-ti 

veh-o 
vch-i-s  • 
vch-i-t 

3.  pa^-ya-mi 
pa5-ya-si 
pa^-ya-ti 

vach-ay5-mas 
vach-aya-tha 
vach-aya-nti 

voc-d-mus 

voc-d-tis 

voc-a-nt 

vah-5-mas 
vah-a-tha 
vah-a-nti 

yeh-i-mus 

veh-i-tis 

veh-u-nt 

paj-ya-mas 
pa^-ya-tha 
pas-ya-nti 

Formation  of  Tenses.  73 

a.  The  suffix  v  (u)  is  added  to  the  stem  :  as,  vocd-v-i,  audl-v-i; 
or  to  the  root :  as,  son-u-i  {sond-re)^  mon-u-i  {mone-re). 

Note.  —  In  a  few  verbs  the  vowel  of  the  root  is  transposed  and 
lengthened  :  as,  strd-v-i  {sterno,  star),  spre-v-i  {sperno,  spar). 

b.  The  suffix  s  is  added  to  the  Root :  as,  carp-s-i,  tex-i  (teg). 
Note.  —  The  modifications  of  the  present  stem,  or  a  lost  or 

hnaginary  stem,  sometimes  appear  in  the  perfect :  as,  finx-i  (fig), 
sanx-i  (sAc),  peti-v-i  (pet). 

c.  The  Root  is  reduplicated  by  prefixing  the  first  consonant  — 
generally  with  e,  sometimes  with  the  root-vowel :  as,  ce-cid-i  {cado), 
to-tond-i  {tondeo). 

Note.  —  in  Jid-i  (Jindo),  scid-i  {scindo),  the  reduplication  has 
been  lost,  leaving  the  root  merely. 

d.  The  root- vowel  is  lengthened  :  as,  eg-i  (  dg-o),fug-i  {fugio). 

e.  The  root  has  the  same  form  as  in  the  present :  as,  vert-i 
{verto),  solv-i  {solvo). 

Supine   Stem. 

125.  The  Supine  Stem^  is  -formed  by  adding  t  (or 
euphonically  s)  — 

a.  To  the  verb-stem  :  as,  amd-i-um,  dele-t-um,  audt-t-um. 

b.  To  the  Root,  with  or  without  \ :  as,  cap-t-um  (capid),  moni- 
t-um  (moned),  cds-um  (for  cad-t-uin). 

Note.  —  The  modifications  of  the  present  stem,  or  a  lost  or 
imaginary  one,  sometimes  appear  in  the  Supine :  as,  tinc-t-um 
{tingd),  tens-um  (Jendd),  peti-t-um  {petd). 

Formation   of  the   Tenses. 

Note.  —  The  tenses  of  the  regular  verb  may  be  formed  upon 
the  several  verb-stems  by  adding  to  these  stems  the  verb-endings 
(p.  66),  making  in  the  Present  stem  the  changes  indicated  below. 

126.  The  forms  in  the  several  conjugations,  as  deter^ 
mined  by  the  Present  Stem,  with  the  regular  formation 
of  the  Perfect  and  Supine  stems,  and  the  changes  of  the 
stem-vowel,  may  be  given  thus  :  — 

a.  The  First  Conjugation  includes  all  verbs  which  add  a  to  the 
root  to  form  the  present  stem,  as  ajnd-re j  with  a  few  whose  root 

1  For  the  modifications  of  the  Supine  Stem,  see  121.  t,  Note. 


74  Etymology :    The  Regular  Verb. 

ends  in  a.^  In  these  the  perfect  and  supine  stems  regularly  add 
V,  t,  to  the  present  stem :  '  as,  afnd-v-i,  amd-t-um.  The  stem- 
vowel  a  is  lost  before  o  (as  amo  =  ama-o),  and  in  the  present 
subjunctive  is  changed  to  e  :  as,  ame-s^  ame-tnus. 

b.  The  Second  Conjugation  includes  all  verbs  which  add  e  to 
form  the  present  stem  :  as,  mone-re ;  with  a  few  whose  root  ends 
in  e.'  In  a  few  the  Perfect  and  Supine  stems  add  v  (u),  t :  as, 
dele-v-i^  dele-t-um  j  but,  in  most,  they  are  added  to  the  root  in  the 
perfect,  and  to  a  weaker  stem  in  I  in  the  supine  :  as,  mon-u-i, 
moni-t-um.^    In  the  pres.  subj.  a  is  added :  as,  mone-ds,  mone-dmus. 

c.  The  Third  Conjugation  includes  all  verbs  (not  irregular) 
which  add  5  to  form  the  Present  stem  :  as,  teg^-re,  capg-rej  with  a 
few  whose  root  ends  in  6  :  as,  se-re-re?  All  the  forms  of  the  per- 
fect and  supine  stems  are  found  in  this  conjugation.*  The  stem 
vowel  6  is  lost  before  o,  becomes  u  before  nt,  and  I  before  the  other 
endings  of  the  indicative  and  imperative  :  as,  tego^  tegit^  tegunt j  in 
the  imperfect  indicative  it  becomes  e:   as,  tegebarn;  pres.  subj.  a. 

Verbs  in  ic  retain  i  before  a,  o,  u,  and  e :  as,  capiat,  capiunt^ 
capiebat^  capies^  capiet;  but  lose  it  elsewhere  :  as,  capita  caperet. 

d.  The  P'ourth  Conjugation  includes  all  verbs  which  add  i:  as, 
audl-re.''  In  these  the  Perfect  and  Supine  stems  regularly  add 
V,  t,  to  the  verb  stem  :  as,  audi-v-i^  audi-t-um.^  The  endings  of 
the  third  conjugation  are  added  in  the  3d  person  plural  of  the  pres- 
ent (indie,  and  imperat.),  in  the  imperf.  and  fut.  indicative,  and  in 
the  pres.  subjunctive  :  as,  audi-unt^  audi-ebat,  audi-etis,  audi-at. 

^  e.  The  Imperative  (2d  person  singular)  is  the  same  as  the 
/Present  Stem  :  as,  amd,  mone,  teg^,  audi.     But  verbs  in  io  of  the 

Third  Conjugation  omit  i  :  as,  cape. 

^  f.  The  tenses  of  completed  action  are  all  regularly  formed  by 
/adding  the  tense-endings  (given  on  p.  66)  to  the  Perfect  Stem  :  as, 

amdv-i,  amdv-eram,  amdv-ero^  amdv-erim,  amdv-isseniy  amdv-isse. 

/g.  The  tenses  of  completed  action  in  the  Passive  voice  are 
formed  by  adding  to  the  Perfect  Participle  the  corresponding 
tenses  of  continued  action  of  the  verb  esse :  as,  Perfect,  amdtus 
sum;  Plup.  amdtus  eram,  etc. 

»  Viz.,  dit-re,  fa-ri,  fid-re,  nd-rg,  stOT-re.  ^  The  present  stem  is  thus  the 

verb-stem.  For  exceptions,  see  p.  79.  *  These  zttfie-re,  ne-re,  re-ri.  *  For 
exceptions,  see  p.  81.  ^  Reduplicated  from  5^  (d.  sdtum).  •  See  Lists,  pp. 
84,  85  ;  the  perfect,  however,  is  never  formed  from  the  present  stem.  '  A  few 

are  formed  from  noun-stems,  as  fini-re,  and  a  few  roots  end  in  i  )  but  these  are 
not  4istinguishable  in  form.     ^  F'or  exceptions,  see  p.  87. 


K 


Synopsis ;  Special  Forms.  75 

127.  A  Synopsis  of  the  forms  of  the  Verb  (regular 
of  the  first  conjugation),  arranged  according  to  the 
several  Stems,  may  be  given  as  follows :  — 

Present  Stem,  ama-       Active  Voice.        Perfect  Stem,  amav- 

PRES.   IMPERF.   FUT.         PERF.   PLUPERF.     FUT.  PERF. 

Indic.  amo     amabam  amabo  amavi,  amaveram,  amavero 

SuBj.  amem  amarem      amaverim,  amavissem 

Imper.    2.  ama         amato  

Infin.         amare    amaturus  amavisse 


Passive  Voice.         Supine  Stern,  amat 
Indic.  amor    amabar    amabor      amatus  sum,  —  eram,  —  ero 

SuBj.  amer    amarer        amatus  sim,  —  essem 

Imper.    2.  amare    amator  

Infin.  amari     amatus  esse  —  amStumni 

Part.  Act.   amans,  amaturus ;     Pass,   amatus,  amandus 

128.  The  following  special  forms  are  found  in  the 
conjugation  of  many  verbs :  — 

^. 'In  tenses  formed  upon  the  Perfect  stem,  v  between  two 
vowels  is  often  suppressed,  and  (unless  a  or  e  follows  i  or  u)  the 
second  vowel  is  merged  in  the  first :  as,  amasse  =  amavisse ; 
flestis  =  flevistis ;  audieram  =  audiveram ;  nosse  =  novisse. 
This  is  especially  frequent  in  verbs  of  the  fourth  conjugation, 
and  is  regular  in  the  compounds  of  eo :  as,  abiit  for  abivit. 

b.  In  many  forms  is,  iss,  sis  are  lost  in  like  manner  when  s 
would  be  repeated  :  as,  dixti  for  dixisti;  traxe  for  traxisse. 

c.  Four  verbs  —  dico,  duco,  facio,  fero  —  with  their  com- 
pounds, drop  the  vowel-termination  of  the  Imperative,  making 
die,  diic,  fac,  fer ;  but  compounds  in  -ficio  retain  it,  as  confice. 
The  forms  dice,  diice,  face  (never  fere),  occur  in  early  Latin. 

d.  For  the  Imperative  of  scio,  the  future  form  scito  is  always 
used  in  the  singula^  and  scitote  usually  in  the  plural. 

e.  The  following  ancient  forms  are  chiefly  found  in  poetry :  — 

1.  In  the  fourth  conjugation  -ibam,  -ibo  for  -iebam,  -iam  (fut.). 

2.  In  the  present  subjunctive  -im:  as  in  duim,  perduim,  re- 
tained in  religious  formulas  (compare  sim,  velim'). 

3.  In  the  perf  subj.  and  fut.  perf.  -so,  -sim:  as,  faxo,  faxim. 

4.  In  the  passive  infinitive  -ier  :  as,  vocdrier  for  vocdri. 

5.  A  form  in  asso,  assere  is  found  as  a  future. 


76 


Etymology :    The  Regular    Verb. 


First    Conjugation,  — I.  Active    Voice, 


PRESENT. 

:  amo 


Principal   Parts 
Indicative. 

amo,  /  love. 
nmsiB,you  love. 
amat,  he  {she,  it)  loves. 
amamus,  we  love. 
^ma.\^B,  you  love. 
amant,  they  love. 

amabam,  /  loved. 
a.nia.haB,you  loved. 
amabat,  he  loved. 
amabamus,  we  loved.   . 
3.ma.ha.tia,  you  loved. 
amabant,  they  loved. 

amabo,  /  shall  love. 
amabis,  you  will  love. 
amabit,  he  will  love. 
amabimus,  we  shall  love. 
amabitis,  you  will  love. 
amabunt,  they  will  love. 


amavi,  /  loved. 
amfivista,  j<?«  loved. 
amavit,  he  loved. 
amavimus,  we  loved. 
amavistis,  j^«  loved. 
amaverunt  (ere),  they  loved. 


INFIN. 

amare 


PERFECT. 

amavi 


amatum 

Subjunctive. 

Present. 

amem,  may  I  love  / 
ames,  love  thou. 
amet,  let  him  love. 
am  emus,  let  us  love. 
ametis,  love  ye. 
ament,  let  them  love. 
Imperfect. 

amarem,  /  should  love. 
amares,  you  would  love. 
amaret,  he  would  love. 
amaremus,  we  should  love. 
amaretis,  you  would  love. 
amarent,  they  would  love. 

Future. 

[amaturua  sim] 


Perfect. 

amaverim 

amaveris 
amaverit 


(see  note,  p.  68) 


amavenmua 

amaveritia 

amaverint 


amaveram,  /  had  loved. 
amaveraa,  you  had  loved. 
amaverat,  he  had  loved. 
amaveramua,  we  had  loved. 
amaveratis,  you  had  loved. 
amaverint,  they  had  loved. 

Future 

amavero,  /  shall  have  loved. 
amaverla,  j<?w  will  have  lo%>ed. 
amaverit,  he  will  have  loved. 
amaverimua,  we  shall  have  loved. 
amaveritia,  ^<?«  will  have  loved. 
amaverint,  they  will  have  loved. 


Pluperfect. 

amaviasem,  I  should  have  loved. 
amavissea,  you  would  have 
amaviaaet,  he  would  have 
amaviaaemua,  we  should  have 
amaviasetia,  K^«  would  have 
amaviaaent,  they  would  have 

Perfect. 


First  Conjugatiofi ;  Active   Voice.  'jj 

Singular.  Imperative.  Plural 


Pres.  2.  ama,  love  thou. 
FuT.    2.  amato,  thou  shall  love. 
%,  amato,  he  shall  love. 


amate,  love  ye. 
amatote,  ye  shall  love. 
amanto,  they  shall  love. 


Noun    and   Adjective   Forms. 

Infinitive. 

Present,   amare,  to  love. 

Perfect,   amavisse,  or  amasse,  to  have  loved. 

Future,     amaturus  esse,  to  be  about  to  love. 

Participles. 
Present,    amans,  antis,  loving. 
Future,     amaturus,  a,  um,  about  to  love. 

Gerund.        fytu  -  -^-^  ^  Ct  .  ^  ' 
Gen.    amandi,  of  [the  act  or  state  of]  loving. 
Dat.   amando,/^r  loving  (with  adjectives). 
Acc.    amandum,  loving  (with  ad  and  inter). 
Abl.    amando,  by  lovifig. 

Supine.     ^  -'-^'  • 

amStum,  amatu,  to  love.     (See  p.  212,  n.) 

129.  The  so-called  Periphrastic  conjugations  are  formed  by 
combining  the  tenses  of  esse  with  the  Future  Participle  (supine- 
stem)^  and  with  the  Gerundive  (present-stem)  :  as, 

First   Periphrastic    Conjugation. 

Indicative.  Subjunctive. 

Pres.       amaturus  sum      .  .  .  sim,  /  am  about  to  love. 
Imperf.   amaturus  eram     .  .  .  essBva.,  I  was  about  to  love. 
FuT.         amaturus  ero,  /  shall  be  about  to  love. 
Perf.       amaturus  fui         .  .  .  fuerim 
Plup.       amaturus  fueram  .  .  .  fuissem  (F.  P.  not  used.) 

Second    Periphrastic   Conjugation. 

Pres.        amandus  sum       .  .  .  sim,  /  am  to  be  loved. 
Imperf.   amandus  eram      .  .  .  essem,  I  was  to  be  loved. 
FuT.         amandus  ero,  /  shall  be  [worthy]  to  be  loved. 
Perf.       amandus  fui  ...  fuerim 

Plup.       amandus  fueram  .  .  .  fuissem        F.  P.  .  .  fuero 

*  This  is  often  necessary  in  the  subjunctive,  which  has  no  future  form :  thus, 
cum  venturus  sit,  since  he  will  cojne  (is  about  to  come). 


78 


Etymology:  The  Regular  Verb, 


First   Conjugation.— 2.  Passive   Voice* 


PRESENT. 

Principal   Parts:   amor 


INFIN. 

amari 


PERFECT. 

amatus  sum 


Indicative. 

amor,  /  am  loved. 
amaris  (re),/^«  are  loved. 
amatur,  he  is  loved. 
amamur,  we  are  loved. 
amamini,  yoti  are  loved. 
amantur,  they  are  loved. 


Subjunctive. 

Present. 

amer,  may  I  be  loved. 
ameris  (re),  be  thou  loved, 
ametur,  let  him  be  loved. 
ameinur,  let  us  be  loved. 
amemini,  be  ye  loved. 
amentur,  let  them  be  loved. 


amabar,  /  was  loved. 
amabaris  (re),  you  were  loved. 
amabatur,  he  was  loved. 
amabamur,  we  were  loved. 
amabamini,  you  were  loved. 
amabantur,  they  were  loved. 


amabor,  /  shall  be  loved. 

amaberis  (re),  thou  wilt  (^you  will)  be  loved. 

amabitur,  he  will  be  loved. 

amabimur,  we  shall  be  loved. 

amabimini,  you  will  be  loved. 

amabuntur,  they  will  be  loved. 

Perfect. 


Ixaperfect. 

amarer,  /  should  be  loved. 
amareris  (re), you  would  be  loved. 
amaretur,  he  would  be  loved. 
amaremur,  we  should  be  loved. 
amaremini,  you  would  be  loved. 
amarentur,  they  would  be  loved. 
Future. 

[futurum  sit  ut  amer] 


amatua  sum,  /  was  hved. 
amatus  q^,  you  were  loved. 
amatus  est,  he  was  loved. 
amatl  sumus,  we  were  loved. 
amati  eatis,  j<??/  were  loved. 
amati  sunt,  they  were  loved. 


amatus  aim  (see  note,  p.  68) 

amatus  ais 

amatus  ait 

amati  aimoa 

amati  aitia 

amatl  aint 


Pluperfect. 


amatus  eram,  /  had  been  loved. 
amatus  eras,  v^//  had  been  loved. 
amatus  erat,  he  had  been  loved. 
amati  eramus,  we  had  been  loved. 
amati  eratis,  you  had  been  loved. 
amati  erant,  they  had  been  loved. 

Future   Perfect 
amatus  ero,  /  shall  have  been  loved. 
amatus  eris,  you  will  have  been  loved, 
amatus  erit,  he  will  have  been  loved. 
amati  erimus,  we  shall  hazfe  been  loafed. 
amati  eritiB,  you  ^vi II  have  been  loved. 
amati  eruut,  thev  -will  have  been  loved. 


amatus  esaem,  /  should 
amatus  eaaea,  j^«  would 
amatus  eaaet,  he  would 
amiiti  easemua,  we  should 
amati  eaaetia, ^t?!^  would 
amati  eaaent,  they  would, 


kcei>e 
been 
lm>ed. 


First  Conjugation ;  Passive   Voice.  79 

Singular.  Imperative.  Plural. 

Pres.  2.    amare,  be  thou  loved.  amamini,  be  ye  loved. 

FuT.     2.    amator,  thou  shall  be  loved.        

3.   amator,  he  shall  be  loved,     amantor,  they  shall  be  loved. 

Noun   and   Adjective   Forms. 

Infinitive. 
Present,   amari,  to  be  loved. 
Perfect,   amatus  esse,  to  have  been  loved. 
Future,     amatum  iri  (amatus  fore),  to  be  about  to  be  loved. 

Participles. 
Perfect,    amatus,  loved  {beloved^  or  having  bee^i  loved^. 
Future  (Gerundive),   amandus,  a,  um,  to-be-loved  {lovely). 

Supine. 
amatu,  to  love  or  to  be  loved  (with  adjectives). 

130.  There  are  about  360  simple  verbs  of  this  conjugation, 
most  of  them  formed  directly  upon  a  noun  or  adjective-stem,  to 
which  they  generally  give  the  force  and  meaning  of  an  active 
verb  :  as,  armo,  to  ar7n  (arma) ;  caeco,  to  blind  (caeous) ;  exsu^, 
to  be  in  exile  (exsul).  Their  conjugation  is  usually  regular,  like 
amo;  though  of  many  only  a  few  parts  are  found  in  use. 

Those  verbs  which  form  their  Perfect  and  Supine  stems  differ- 
ently are  the  following.  Those  marked  f  have  also  regular  forms, 
and  forms  preceded  by  a  hyphen  are  found  only  in  compounds  :  — 

neco,  t  necui,  f  nect-,  kill. 


crepo,  crepui,  crepit-,  resound. 
cubo,  cubui,  cubit-,  lie  down. 
do,  dare,  dedi,  dat-,  give  [da]. 
domo,  domui,  domit-,  subdue. 
frico,  fricui,  ffrict-,  rub. 
juvo  (ad-juvo),  juvi,  \vX-^help. 
labo,  avi  (no  sup.),  totter. 
mice,  micui,  glitter. 


plico,  t-plicui,  t-plicit-,y<7/^. 
poto,  potavi,  t  pot-,  drink. 
seco,  secui,  sect-,V«/. 
sono,  sonui,  ?>ox\\i-y  sound. 
sto,  steti,  Stat-  (-stit-),  stand. 
tono,  tonui,  tonit-,  thunder. 
veto,  vetui,  \&i\t-,  forbid. 


*  Forms  in  Siurtis. 

Note.  —  Compounds  of  these  verbs  have  the  following  forms  : 
crepo  :  dis-crepui  or  crepdvi. 
do  :  circutn-y  inter-^  pessum-,  satis-,  super-,  venum-do,  dedi,  dat-,  of  the  ist 

conjugation;  other  compounds  are  of  the  3d  {-dere,  -didi,  -dit-). 
mico  :  di-micdvi,  micdt- ;  e-micui,  micdt-. 
plico:    re-,  sub-  {sup-),  multi-plico,  plicdvi,  plicdt- ;  ex-plico  (unfold),  ui, 

it- ;  (explain),  dvi,  dt-;  impli-co,  dvi  (ui),  dtum  (itum). 
Sto:  con-sto,  stiti,  stit-  (stdt-) ;    ad-,  re-sto,  stiti, — ;    atite-  {anti-),  inter-, 

super-sto,  steti,  — ;  circum-sto,  steti  (stiti),  — ;  di-sto,  no  perf.  or  sup. 


8o 


Etymology :   The  Regular   Verb, 


Second   Conjugation. 

Principal  Parts  :    Act.  moneo  monere  monui  monitum 
Pass,  rnoneor  moneri  monitus  sum 

INDIC.       ACTIVE.       SUBJ.  INDlC.       PASSIVE.       SUBJ. 

Present. 

moneor 


moneo,  I  warn, 
monea,  y  021  warn. 
monet,  he  wartis. 
monemus 
monetia 
monent 


monebam 

monebas 

monebat 

monebamus 

monebatis 

monebant 

nionebo 

monebis 

ijionebit 

monebimuB 

monebitis 

monebunt 

monui 

monuisti 
monuit 
monuimuB 
monuiatis 
monuerunt  (re) 

monueram 

monueraa 

hfionuerat 

monueramuB 

monueratia 

monuerant 

monuero 

monuerifl 

monuerit 

monuerimua 

monueritis 

monuerint 


moneam 

moneaa 

moneat 

moneamus 

moneatis 

moneant 


moneria  (re) 

monetur 

monemur 

monemini 

monentur 


monear 

monearia  (re) 

moneatur 

moneamur 

moneamini 

moneantur 


Imperfect. 


monerem 

monerea 

moneret 

moneremua 

moneretia 

monerent 


monebar  monerer 

monebaris  (re)monereria  (re) 
monebatur         moneietur 
monebamur       moneremur 
monebamini      moneremini 
monebantur      monerentur 


monuenm 

monueria 

monuerit 

monuerimua 

monueritia 

monuerint 


Future. 

monebor 

moneberia  (re) 

monebitur 

monebimur 

monebimini 

monebuntur 

Perfect. 

monitua  aum 
monitus  ea 
monitus  eat 
moniti  aumua 
monitl  eatia 
moniti  aunt 


Pluperfect. 


monulaaem 

monuiaaea 

monuiaaet 

monuiaaemua 

monuiaaetia 

monuiaaent 


monitus  aim 
monitus  aia 
monitus  ait 
moniti  aimua 
moniti  sitia 
moniti  aint 

monitus  eaaem 
monitus  easea 
monitus  eaaet 


monitus  eram 

monitus  eraa 

monitus  erat 

moniti  eramua  moniti  eaaemus 

moniti  eratia      moniti  easetia 

moniti  erant      moniti  eaaeut 


Future   Perfect. 

monitus  ero 
monitus  eria 
monitus  erit 
moniti  erimus 
moniti  eritis 
moniti  erunt 


Second  Conjugation. 


ACTIVE. 

Sing. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Plur.                  Sing. 

PASSIVE 
Plur. 

Pr.  mone 

monete 

monere 

monemini 

F.     moneto 
moneto 

monetote 
monento 

monetor 
monetor 

monentor 

INFINITIVE. 

Pr.  monere        Pf.  monuisse      I    Pr.  moneri      Pf.  monitus  esse 

F.  monitiirus  esse  I    F.    monitum  iri  (monitus  fore) 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pr.  monens     Fut.  moniturus    |    Pf.  monitus    Ger.  monendus 

G.  monendi,  do,  dum  Supine,    monitum,  monitii 

131.  There  are  nearly  120  simple  verbs  of  this  conjugation, 
most  of  them  denominative  verbs  of  conditio?t,  having  a  corre- 
sponding noun  and  adjective  from  the  same  root,  and  an  inceptive 
in  -SCO  :  as,  caleo,  calor,  calidus,  calesco  ;  timeo,  timor,  timidus. 

Most  of  the  verbs  of  the  second  conjugation  form  their  perfect 
and  supine  like  moneo.  The  following  have  evi  and  etum  : 
deleo,  destroys  fieo,  weep;  neo,  spin;  \rieo,plat;  and  compounds 
of  -pleo,  Jill;  -oleo,  grow.     The  remainder  are  :  — 


algeo,  alsi,  be  cold. 
ardeo,  arsi,  ars-,  burn. 
audeo,  ausus  sum,  dare. 
augeo,  auxi,  auct-,  increase. 
caveo,  cavi,  caut-,  care. 
censeo,  censui,  cens-,  value. 
cieo,  civi,  cit-,  excite. 
doceo,  docui,  doct-,  teach. 
faveo,  favi,  izMi-,  favor. 
ferveo,  fervi  (ferbui),  glow. 
foveo,  fovi,  fot-,  cherish. 
frigeo,  frixi,  be  cold. 
fulgeo,  falsi,  shine. 
gaudeo,  gavisus  sum,  rejoice. 
haereo,  haesi,  haes-,  cling. 
indulgeo,  indulsi,  indult-,  indtdge. 
jiibeo,  jussi,  juss-,  order. 
iangueo,  langui,  be  faint. 
liqueo,  liqui  (-licui),  melt. 
luceo,  luxi,  -luct-,  shiiie. 
lugeo,  luxi,  luct-,  mourn. 
maneo,  mansi,  mans-,  ivait. 
misceo,  cui,  mixt-  (mist-),  mix. 
mordeo,  momordi,  mors-,  bite. 


moveo,  movi,  mot-,  move. 
mulceo,  mulsi,  muls-,  soothe. 
mulgeo,   si    (xi),   muls-     (mulct-), 

mdk. 
niveo,  nivi  (nixi),  wink. 
paveo,  pavi,y^ar. 
pendeo,  pependi,  pens-,  hang. 
prandeo,  prandi,  prans-,  dine. 
rideo,  rlsi,  ris-,  laugh. 
sedeo,  sedi,  sess-,  sit. 
soleo,  solitus  sum,  be  wont. 
sorbeo,  sorbui  (sorpsi),  sorpt-,  suck. 
spondeo,  spopondi,  spons-,  pledge. 
strldeo,  stridi,  whiz. 
suadeo,  suasi,  suas-,  tirge. 
teneo  (-tineo),  tenui,  tent-,  hold. 
tergeo,  tersi,  ters-,  wipe. 
tondeo,  totondi,  tons-,  shear. 
torqueo,  torsi,  tort-,  twist. 
torreo,  torrui,  tost-,  roast. 
turgeo,  tursi,  swell. 
urgeo,  ursi,  urge. 
video,  vidi,  vis-,  see. 
voveo,  vovi,  vot-,  vow. 


Note. — The  following   (perfect  in  ^^/)  have  no  supine  :  caveo, 
arceo,   calleo,  egeo,  floreo,  horreo.,  pateo,  sileo,    studeo,  timeo. ^    A 
few  (including  macreo)  have  neither  perfect  nor  supine. 
1  So  also  caveo. 


82 


Etymology :    TJic  Regular    Verb, 


Third 

Conjugation, 

Principal   Parts  :    Act. 

tego  tegere  texi 

tectum 

Pass. 

tegor  tegi  tectus 

sum 

INDIC.       ACTIVE.       SUBJ 

INDIC.        PASSIVE.        SUBJ. 

Present. 

tego,  /  cover. 

tegam 

tegor 

tegar 

tegis.^^w  cover 

tegaa 

tegeria  (re) 

tegaria  (re) 

tegit,  he  covers. 

tegat 

tegitur 

tegatur 

tegimus 

tegamuB 

tegimur 

tegamur 

tegitis 

tegatia 

tegimini 

tegamiuX 

tegunt 

tegant 

teguntur 

tegantur 

Imperfect. 

tegebam 

tegerem 

tegebar 

tegerer 

tegebas 

tegerea 

tegebaris  (re) 

tegereria  (re) 

tegebat 

tegeret 

tegebatur 

tegeretur 

tegebamus 

tegeremua 

tegebamur 

tegeremur 

tegebatis 

tegeretia 

tegebamini 

tegeremini 

tegebant 

tegerent 

tegebantur 

tegerentur 

Future. 

tegam 

tegar 

teges 

tegeria  (re) 

teget 

tegetur 

tegemus 

tegemur 

tegetis 

tegemini 

tegent 

tegentur 

Perfect. 

tesd 

texerim 

tectua  aum 

tectus  Bim 

texisti 

texeria 

tectua  ea 

tectus  81S 

texit 

texerit 

tectua  eat 

tectus  ait 

teximus 

texerimua 

tecti  aumua 

tecti  Bimus 

texiatis 

texeritia 

tecti  eatia 

tecti  aitia 

texerunt  (re) 

texerint 

tecti  sunt 

tecti  sint 

Pluperfect. 

texeram 

texissem 

tectus  eram 

tectus  esaem 

texer&s 

texiaaea 

tectus  eraa 

tectus  eaaes 

texerat 

texiaaet 

tectus  erat 

tectus  eaaet 

texeramus 

texiaaemus 

tecti  eramus 

tecti  eaaemua 

texeratis 

texiaaetia 

tecti  eratia 

tecti  eaaetia 

texerant 

texiaaent 

tecti  erSnt 

tecti  esaent 

Fatur©  Terfect. 

texero 

tectus  ero 

texeris 

tectus  eria 

texerit 

tectus  erit 

texerimua 

tecti  erimua 

texeritia 

tecti  eritia 

texerint 

tecti  erunt 

Third  Conjugation. 


83 


ACTIVE.  IMPERATIVE. 

Sing.  Plur.  Sing. 

Pr.  2.  tege,  cover,  tegite  tegere 

F.     2.  tegito  tegitote  tegitor 

3.  tegito  tegunto  tegitor 

INFINITIVE. 

Pr.  tegere  Pf.  texisse         |    Pr.  tegi 

F.     tectums  esse 


PASSIVE. 

Plur. 
tegimini 

teguntor 

Pf.  tectus  esse 
F.     tectum  iri  (tectus  fore) 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres.  tegens      Fut.  tecturus    |    Perf.  tectus     Ger.  tegendus 
Ger.    tegendi,  do,  dum  Supine,    tectum,  tectu 


Verbs  ending  in  io. 

capio  capere  cepi  captnm 

1     capior  capi 

captus  sum 

Present. 

capio,  /  take. 

capiam 

capior 

capiar 

capis,/^/^  take. 

capias 

caperis  (re) 

capiaris  (re) 

capit,  he  takes. 

capiat 

capitur 

capiatur 

capimus 

capiamus 

capimur 

capiamur 

capitis 

capiatis 

capimini 

capiamini 

capiunt 

capiant 

Impe 

capiuntur 
rfect. 

capiantur 

capiebam 

caperem 

Fut 

1    capiebar 

ure. 

caperer 

capiam 

capiemus 

capiar 

capiemur 

capies 

capietis 

capieris  (re) 

capiemini 

capiet 

capient 

capietur 

capientur 

Perf.  cepi 

ceperim 

captus  sum 

captus  Sim 

Plup.  ceperam 

cepissem 

captus  eram 

captus  essem 

F.  P.    cepero 

captus  ero 

Imp.      cape 

capite 

capere 

capimini 

capito 

capitote 

capitor 

capito 

capiunto 

capitor 

capiuntor 

Infin.  capere 

.  cepisse 

capi 

captus  esse 

Fut.     capturus  esse 

captum  iri 

Part,  capiens 

capturus 

captus 

capiendus 

Ger.  capiendi,  do,  dum     Sup.  captum,  tu 
Note.  —  Verbs  of  the   3d   conjugation  ending  in  io   are  the 
following  :  capio ^  cupio,  facio,  fodio^  fugio.,  jacio,  pario,  quatio, 
rapio,  sapio,  with  compounds  of  -ciitio,  -licio,   -spicio.     For  their 
Principal  Parts,  see  the  following  list. 


84 


Etymology :   The  Regular   Verb. 


132.  The  following  list  includes  most  simple  verbs  of  the  third 
conjugation,  classed  according  to  the  formation  of  the  Perfect  stem. 

a.  Forming  the  Perfect  stem  in  s  (x)  :  — 


ango,  anxi,  anct-,  choke. 

carpo,  carpsi,  carpt-,  pltick. 

cedo,  cessi,  ctss-,  yield. 

cingo,  cinxi,  cinct-,  bind. 

clango,  clanxi,  sound. 

claudo,  clausi,  claus-,  shut. 

clepo,  clepsi,  clept-,  steal. 

como,  compsi,  compt-,  comb,  deck. 

coquo,  coxi,  coct-,  cook. 

-cutio,  -cussi,  -cuss-,  shake. 

demo,  dempsi,  dempt-,  take  away. 

dico,  dixi,  diet-,  say. 

divido,  divisi,  divis-,  divide. 

duco,  duxi,  duct-,  guide. 

figo,  fixi,  i\\-,Jix. 

fingo  [fig],  finxi,  hci-,  fashion. 

flecto,  flexi,  flex-,  bend. 

fluo,  fluxi,  flux-,yf«3w. 

frendo,  -fresi,  fress-,  gnash. 

frigo,  frixi,  frict-  {ix\x-),/ry. 

gero,  gcssi,  gest-,  carry. 

laedo,  laesi,  laes-,  hurt. 

-licio,  -lexi,  -lect-,  entice  (elicui|  cit-). 

lingo,  linxi,  linct-,  lick. 

ludo,  lusi,  lus-,//(rzj/. 

mergo,  mersi,  mtrs,- ,  plunge. 

mitto,  mlsi,  miss-,  send.         [weave. 

necto  [necj,  nexi  (nexui),  nex-,  to 

nubo,  nupsi,  nupt-,  marry. 

peeto,  pexi  (pexui),  pex-,  comb. 

pergo,  perrexi,  perrect-,  go  on. 

b.  Reduplicated  in  the  Perfect 

cado,  cecidi,  czs-yfall. 

caedo,  cecidi,  caes-,  cut. 

cano,  cecini,  cant-,  sing. 

curro,  cucurri,  curs-,  run. 

disco  [dtc],  didici,  (discit-), /mr«. 

-do,  -didi,  -dit-  (as  in  ab-do,  &c., 

with  credo,  vendo), /«/  [DHA]. 
fallo,  fefelli,  fals-,  deceive. 
pango  [pag],  pegi  (pepigi),  pact-, 

fasten,  fix y  bargain. 
parco,  parsi,  i)ep€rci,  parcit-,  pars-, 

spare. 


pingo  [pig],  pinxi,  pict-,  paint. 
plaudo,  plausi,  plaus-,  applaud. 
plecto,  plexi  (xui),  plex-,  braid. 
premo,  pressi,  press-, /r^jj. 
promo,  mpsi,  mpt-,  bring  out. 
quatio,  [-cussi],  quass-,  shake. 
rado,  rasi,  ras-,  scrape. 
rego,  rexi,  rect-,  rule. 
repo,  repsi,  rept-,  creep. 
rodo,  rdsi,  ros-,  gnaw. 
sarpo,  sarpsi,  sarpt-,  prune. 
scalpo,  scalpsi,  scalpt-,  scrape. 
scribo,  scripsi,  script-,  write. 
serpo,  serpsi,  serpt-,  crawl. 
spargo,  sparsi,  spars-,  scatter. 
-spicio,  -spexi,  -spect-,  view. 
-stinguo,  -stinxi,  -stinct-,  quench. 
stringo,  strinxi,  strict-,  bind. 
struo,  struxi,  struct-,  btuld. 
sumo,  sumpsi,  sumpt-,  take. 
surgo,  surrexi,  surrect-,  rise. 
tego,  texi,  tect-,  shelter. 
temno,  tempsi,  -tempt-,  despise, 
tergo,  tersi,  ters-,  wipe. 
tingo,  tinxi,  tinct-,  stain. 
traho,  traxi,  tract-,  drag. 
trudo,  trusi,  trus-,  thrust. 
uro,  ussi,  ust-,  burn. 
vado,-vasi,-vas-,  go. 
veho,  vexi,  vect-,  draw. 
vivo,  vixi,  vict-,  live. 


pario,  peperi,  part-  (pariturus),  to 
bring  forth. 

pello,  pepuli,  puis-,  drive. 

pendo,  pependi,  pens-,  weigh. 

posco,  poposci,  (posciturus,)  de- 
mand. 

pungo  [pug],  pupugi,  punct-,/r/VX-. 

sisto  [sta],  stiti,  Stat-,  stop. 

tango  [tag],  tetigi,  tact-,  touch. 

tendo  (ten),  tetendi  (-tendi),  tens- 
(tent-),  stretch.  \beat. 

tundo  [tud],  tutudi,  tuns-  (tus-), 


c.  Adding  u  (v)  to  the  verb-root :  — 

alo,  alui,  alt-  (alit-),  nourish. 
-cello,  -celhii  (-culi),  -cels-,/wj^. 
cerno,  -crevi,  -cret-,  decree. 


colo,  colui,  cult-,  drveUy  till. 
compesco,  compescui,  restrain. 
consulo,  lui,  consult-,  consult. 


Third  Conjugation. 


8s 


cresco,  crevi,  cret-,  increase,  [down. 
-cumbo    [cub],    cubui,    cubit-,    lie 
depso,  depsui,  depst-,  knead. 
fremo,  fremui,  fremit-,  roar. 
furo,  furui,  rage. 
gemo,  gemui,  gemit-,  groan. 
gigno  [gen],  genui,  genit-,  beget. 
meto,  messui,  mess-,  reap. 
molo,  molui,  molit-,  grind. 
occulo,  occului,  occult-,  hide. 
pasco,  pavi,  past-,y^^^. 
pono,  [Pos],  posui,  posit-, /«/. 
quiesco,  quievi,  quiet-,  rest. 


rapio,  rapui,  rapt-,  seize. 
scisco,  sclvi,  scit-,  decree. 
sero,  sevi,  sat-,  sow. 
sero,  serui,  sert-,  entwine. 
sino,  sivi,  sit-,  permit. 
sperno,  sprevi,  spret-,  scorn. 
sterno,  stravi,  strat-,  strew. 
sterto,  stertui  (sterti),  snore. 
strepo,  strepui,  strepit-,  sound. 
-suesco,  -suevi,  -suet-,  be  wont. 
texo,  texui,  text-,  weave. 
tremo,  tremui,  tremble. 
vomo,  vomui,  vomit-,  vomit. 


d.  Adding  iv  to  tlie  verb-root : — 

peto,  petivi,  petit-,  seek. 
quaero,  quaeslvi,  quaesit-,  seek. 


arcesso,  ivi,  arcessit-,  summon. 
capesso,  capessivi,  undertake. 
cupio,  cupivi,  cupit-,  desire. 
incesso,  incessivi,  attack. 
lacesso,  lacessivi,  \z.z^'s,'s,\\.- ,  provoke 


rudo,  rudivi,  rudit-,  bray. 
sapio,  sapivi  (sapui),  be  wise. 
tero,  trivi,  trit-,  rtcb. 


e.  Lengthening  the  vowe[  of  the  root 


ago,  egi,  act-,  drive. 

capio,  cepi,  capt-,  take. 

edo,  edi,  esum,  eat  (see  140). 

emo,  emi,  empt-,  buy. 

facio,  feci,  fact-,  make. 

fodie,  fodi,  foss-,  dig. 

frango  [frag],  fregi,  fract-,  break. 

fugio,  fugi,  fugit-, /<?^. 

fundo  [fud],  fudi,  i\!&-,pour. 

jacio,  jeci,  jact-,  throw,  (-icio,  -ject- 


lavo,  lavi,    lot-   (laut-),  wash  (reg. 

of  I  St  conj.). 
lego,  legi  (intel-lexi^).lect-,  ^fl;/-^^r. 
lino  [liJ,  levi  (livi),  lit-,  smear. 
linquo  [Lie],  -liqui,  -Hct-,  leave. 
nosco  [gnoJ,  n5vi,   not-   (co-gnit-, 

a-gnit-,  ad-gnit-),  kno7v. 
rumpo  [rup],  rupi,  rupt-,  burst. 
scabo,  scabi,  scratch. 
vinco  [vie],  vici,  vict-,  conquer. 


f.  Retaining  the  Present  stem  or  verb  root :  — 

pinso,  si,  pins-  (pinst-,  pist-),  bruise. 
prehendo,  di,  prehens-,  seize. 


arguo,  ui,  utum,  accuse. 

bibo,  bibi,  bibit-,  drink. 

-cendo,  -cendi,  -cens-,  kindle. 

cudo,  -cudi,  -ZX&-,  forge. 

facesso,  facessi,  facessit-,  execute. 

-fendo,  -fendi,  -fens-,  ward  off. 

findo  [fid],  fidi,^  fiss-,  split. 

ico,  ici,  ict-,  hit. 

lambo,  Iambi,  lambit-,  lap. 

luo,  lui,  luit-,  wash. 

mando,  raandi,  mans-,  chew. 

nuo,  nui,  nuit-,  nod. 

pando,  pandi,  pans-  (pass-),  open. 


ruo,  rui,  rut-  (ruit-),/a//. 
scando,  scandi,  scans-,  climb. 
scindo  [seiD],  scidi,i  sciss-,  tear. 
sido,  sidi  (sedi),  -sess-,  settle. 
solvo,  solvi,  s.oXvi'i-,  loose,  pay. 
strido,  stridi,  whiz. 
vello,  velli  (vulsi),  \\x\s-,  pluck. 
verro,  verri,  vers-,  sweep. 
verto,  verti,  vers-,  turn. 
vTso  [vid],  visi,  vis-,  visit. 
volvo,  volvi,  volut-,  turn. 


Note.  —  The  following  have  no  Perfect  or  Supine  :  —  claudo, 
(limp),  fatisco,  fido,  (ffsus),  fulgo,  glisco,  glilbo,  hisco,  rabo, 
tollo  (sustuli,  subldtum),  vergo. 


1  In  these  the  Perfect  Stem  is  the  same  as  the  verb  root,  having  lost  the  redu- 
plication. The  reduplication  is  also  lost  in  most  compounds  :  as,  ap-pello,  ap-puli; 
con-cido  {cado),  concidi. 

2  So  neglexi,  dilexi. 


86 


Etymology :    The  Regular    Verb, 


Fourth  Conjugation. 

Principal  Parts  :    Act.  audio  audire  audivi  anditum 

Pass,  audior  audiri  auditus  sum 

INDIC.       ACTIVE.       SUBJ.              INDIC.       PASSIVE.       SUBJ. 
Present, 
audio,  /  hear.       audiam                 audior                audiar 
audis,  you  hear,     audias                   audiris  (re)         audiaris  (re) 
audit,  he  hears,     audiat                   auditur               audiatur 

audimus 

auditis 

audiunt 

audiamua 

audiatis 

audiant 

audimur 
audimini 
audiimtur 

audiamur 
audiamini 
audiautur 

audiebam 

audiebaa 

audiebat 

Imperfect, 
audirem                audiebar 
audires                  audiebaris  (re 
audiret                  audiebatur 

audirer 
)  audireris  (re) 
audiretur 

audiebamus 

audiebatis 

audiebant 

audiremus 

audiretis 

audirent 

audiebamur 
audiebamini 
audiebantur 

audiremur 
audiremini 
audirentur 

audiam 

audiea 

audiet 

Fut 

ure. 

audiar 
audieris  (re) 
audietur 

audiemus 

audietis 

audient 

audiemur 
audiemini 
audientur 

andivi 

audlviati 
audivit 

Per 

audiverim 

audiveris 

audlverit 

feet. 
aucUtos  STim 

auditus  es 
auditus  est 

auditus  Sim 
auditus  sis 
auditus  sit 

audlvimus 
audivistis 
audlverunt  (re) 

audlverimus 

audiveritis 

audlverint 

audit!  sumus 
auditi  estis 
audit!  sunt 

auditi  simus 
auditi  sitis 
auditi  sint 

audlveram 

audlveras 

audiverat 

Plup< 
audivlssem 
audivisses 
audlvisset 

erfect. 
auditus  eram 
auditus  eras 
auditus  erat 

auditus  essem 
auditus  esses 
auditus  esset 

audlveramuB 

audiveratis 

audlverant 

audivissemus 

audivissetis 

audivissent 

auditi  eramus 
auditi  eratis 
auditi  erant 

auditi  essemus 
auditi  essetis 
auditi  essent 

audlvero 
audiveris 
audlverit 

Future 

Perfect. 
auditus  ero 
auditus  eris 
auditus  erit 

audlverimus 

audlveritis 

audlverint 

auditi  erimus 
auditi  eritis 
auditi  erunt 

Fourth  Conjugation;  Paralld  Forms. 


87 


ACTIVE. 

IMPERATIVE. 

PASSIVE. 

Sing. 

Phir. 

Sing. 

Plur. 

PR. 

2.  audi 

audite 

audire 

audimini 

F. 

2.  audito 

auditote 

auditor 

3.  audito 

audiunto 

auditor 

audiuntor 

INFINITIVE. 

PR. 

audire 

Pf,  audivisse 

Pr.  audiri 

Pf.  auditus 

F. 

auditurus 

esse 

F.     auditum 

iri  (auditus  foi 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pr.  audiens      Fut.  auditurus   |  Pf.  auditus       Ger.  audiendus 
Ger.  audiendi,  do,  dum         Supine,    auditum,  auditu 

133.  There  are  —  besides  a  few  deponents  and  regular  deriva- 
tives in  lirio  —  about  60  verbs  of  this  conjugation,  a  large  propor- 
tion of  them  being  descriptive  verbs  :  like  — 


crocio,  croak. 
cucurio,  crow. 
ebullio,  bubble. 
fritinnio,  twitter. 


gannio,  yelp. 
glutio,  gulp. 
grunnio,  grunt. 
hinnio,  neigh. 


hirrio,  snarl. 
mugio,  bellow. 
muttio,  mutter. 
singultio,  >^/V^«/. 


scaturio,  gush. 
tinnio,  tinkle. 
tussio,  cough. 
vagio,  cry. 


Those  verbs  not  conjugated  regularly,  like  audio,  are  the  follow- 
ing :  — 


amicio,  nmixi  (cui),  amict-,  clothe. 
aperio,  aperui,  apert-,  open. 
comperio,  peri,  compert-,yf«^. 
farcio,  farsi,  farct-,  (-turn),  stuff. 
ferio,  strike  (no  perfect  or  supine), 
fulcio,  fulsi,  fult-,  prop. 
haurio,  hausi,  haust-  (haus-),  drain. 
operio,  operui,  opert-,  cover. 
raucio,  rausi,  raus-,  be  hoarse. 
reperio,  reperi,  xt^txt-^find. 


salio  (-silio),  salui  (salii),  salt-,  leap. 
sancio  (SAC),  sanxi,  sanct-,  sanction. 
sarcio,  sarsi,  s,2iXt-,  patch. 
sarrio,  ivi  (ui),  Itum,  hoe. 
sentio,  sensi,  sex\s-,feel. 
sepelio,  sepelivi,  sepult-,  bury. 
sepio,  sepsi,  sept-,  hedge  in. 
singultio,  ivi,  singultum,  sob. 
venio,  veni,  vent-,  come. 
vincio,  vinxi,  vinct-,  bind. 


Note.  —  The  following  have  no  supine  stem  (perfect  regular) 


caecutio,  to  be  purblind. 
dementio,  to  be  mad. 
ferocio,  to  be  fierce. 


gestio,  to  be  overjoyed. 
glocio,  to  cluck  (as  a  hen), 
ineptio,  to  play  the  trifier. 


Parallel  Forms. 

134.  Many  verbs  have  more  than  one  set  of  forms, 
of  which  only  one  is  generally  found  in  classic  use :  as, 

lavo,  lavare,  or  lavSre,  to  wash. 
scateo,  scatere,  or  scatSre,  to  gush  forth. 
ludifico,  are,  or  liidificor,  ari,  to  mock. 


S8 


Etymology :  Deponent  Verbs, 


K 


DEPONENT    VERBS. 

135.  Deponent  Verbs  have  the  form  of  the  Passive 
Voice,  with  an  active  or  reflexive  signification  :  as, 

1  miror,  mirari,  miratus,  admire. 

2  vereor,  vereri,  veritus,  fear. 

3  sequor.  sequi,  secutus,  follow. 

4  potior,  potiri,  potitus,  possess. 

Indicative. 


PRES.  miror  vereor 

niiraris  (re)  vereria  (re) 

mlratur  verStur 

mlramur  verSmur 

mlramini  veremini 

mirantur  verentur 

Imp't  mirSbar  verebar 

FuT.    mirabor  vergbor 

Perf.  miratus  sum  veritus  sum 

Plup.  miratus  eram  veritus  eram 

F   P.   miratus  ero  veritus  ero 


sequor  potior 

sequeris  (re)    potiris  (re) 


sequitur 
sequimur 
sequimiiii 
sequuntur 
sequgbar 
sequar 
secutus  sum 
secutus  eram. 
secutus  ero 


potitur 
potimur 
potimini 
potiuntur 
potiSbar 
potiar 

potitus  sum 
potitus  eram 
potitus  ero 


Sabjunctive. 

pRES.  mirer  verear  sequar  potiar 

iMP'T.mTrarer  verSrer  sequerer  potirer 

Perf.  miratus  sim      veritus  sim       secutus  sim      potitus  sim 
Plup.  miratus  essem  veritus  essem  secutus  essem  potitus  essem 
Imp.    mirare  ator       verSre,  Stor      sequere,  itor     potire,  Itor 
iNFiN.mirarl  vergri  sequi  potiri 

Fut.    miratarus  esse  veriturus  esse  secuturus  esse  potiturus  esse 

Pf.  miratus  esse      veritus  esse     secfLtus  esse     potitus 
Part. 

Pres.   mirans  verSns  sequSns 

I'lit.    mlratur  us  veritiirua  secuturus 

Perf  miratus  veritus  seciltus 

Ger,    mirandus  verendus  sequendus 

(iER.   mirandum  verendum         sequendum 

Sup.    miratum,  tu       veritum,  tu       secutum,  tu 


potigns 

potiturus 

potitus 

potiendus 

potieudum 

potitum,  tu 


a.  Deponents  have  the  participles  of  both  voices :  as, 
Beqviena,  folloTving ;  aecCltClnis,  adout  to  follow. 
secHtus,  having  followed  \  sequendus,  to-be-followed. 

b.  The  perfect  participle  of  verbs  otherwise  deponent  is  often 
passive:  as,  mercatus,  ^<7//^^/ ,  ^.Ae^tMB,  gained  {or  havitig  gained). 

c.  The  future  infinitive  is  always  to  be  given  in  the  active  form : 
thus  of  sequor  it  is  secHttlrus  esse  (not  secdtum  Irl^. 


•Rtymology :    Deponent    Verbs. 


89 


d.  The  gerundive,  being  passive  in  meaning,  is  found  only  in 
transitive  verbs,  or  neuter  verbs  used  impersonally  :  as, 

hoc  confitendum  est,  this  must  be  acknowledged. 
moriendum  est  omnibus,  all  must  die. 

e.  Most  deponents  are  neuter  or  reflexive  in  their  meaning, 
corresponding  to  what  in  Greek  is  called  the  Middle  Voice. 

f.  Some  deponents  are  occasionally  used  in  a  passive  significa- 
tion :  as,  criminor,  /  accuse  or  /  am  accused. 

g.  About  twenty  verbs  are,  with  an  active  meaning,  found  in  both 
active  and  passive  forms  :  as,  mereo  or  mereor,  /  deserve. 

h.  More  than  half  of  all  deponents  are  of  the  First  Conjugation, 
and  all  of  these  are  regular.  The  following  list  contains  all  the 
irregular  deponents  :  — 


adsentior,  Iri,  adsensus,  assent. 
apiscor,  (-ip-),  i,  aptus  (-eptus),  get. 
expergiscor,  i,  -perrectus,  rouse. 
experior,  Iri,  expertus,  try.  [con/ess. 
fateor  (-fiteor),  eri,  fassus  (-fessus), 
fruor,  i,  fructus  (fruitus),  enjoy. 
fungor,  i,  iunctus, /ut^t. 
gradior  (-gredior),  i,  gressus,  step. 
irascor,  i,  iratus,  de  angry, 
labor,  i,  lapsus, y?z//. 
loquor,  i,  locutus  (loquutus),  speak. 
-miniscor,  i,  -mentus,  think. 
metior,  Iri,  mensus,  measure,     {die. 
iriorior,  i  (Iri),  mortuus,(moritrirus), 
nanciscor,  i,  nactus  (nanctus),y?«a'. 
nascor,  i,  natus,  be  born. 


nitor,  i,  nisus  (nixus),  strive. 
obllviscor,  i,  ohWins,  forget. 
opperior,  iri,  oppertus,  await. 
ordior,  Iri,  orsus,  begin,  [rise, 

orior    (3d),   Iri,    ortus,    (oriturus), 
paciscor,  i,  pactus,  bargain,  {stcffer, 
patior  (-petior),i,  passus  (-pessus), 
-plector,  i,  -plexus,  clasp, 
proficiscor,  i,  profectus,  set-out, 
queror,  i,  questus,  complain. 
reor,  reri,  ratus,  think, 
revertor,  i,  reversus,  return,     [low. 
sequor,  i,  secutus   (sequutus),  /ol- 
tueor,  eri,  tuitus  (tutus),  defend. 
ulciscor,  i,  ultus,  avenge. 
utor,  i,  usus,  use,  employ. 


Note.  —  The  passive  form  co7nperior,  fri,  compertus,  is  rarely 
found  for  comperio.  The  perfect,  &c.,  of  revertor,,  until  the  time  of 
Augustus,  had  regularly  the  active  form,  reverti,  reverter  am,,  &c. 

/.  The  following  deponents  have  no  supine  stem  :  — 


devertor,  ti,  turn  aside  (to  lodge), 
diffiteor,  eri,  deny. 
liquor,  i,  melt  (neut.). 


medeor,  eri,  heal. 
reminiscor,  i,  call  to  mind 
vescor,  \,  feed  upon. 


Semi-Deponents. 

136.  A  few  verbs  having  no  perfect  stem  form  the 
tenses  of  completed  action  like  the  passive :  these  are 
called  semi-deponents  or  neuter  passives,  viz., 
audeo,  audere,  ausus,  dare,     gaudeo,  gaudere,  gavisus,  rejoice, 
fido,  fidere,  fisus,  trust.  soleo,  solera,  solitus,  be  wont. 


90 


Etymology :   Irregular    Verbs. 


a.  From  audeo  there  is  an  old  subjunctive  perfect  ausim. 
The  form  B5des  (for  si  audes),  an  thou  wilt,  is  frequent  in  the 
dramatists  and  rare  elsewhere. 

b.  The  active  forms  vapulare,  to  be  flogged,  and  venire,  to  be 
sold  (venum  ire,^^  to  sale),  having  a  passive  meaning,  are  some- 
times called  neutral  passives.  To  these  may  be  added  fieri  (see 
142),  to  be  fnade,  and  exsulare,  to  be  banished  (live  in  exile). 

Note.  —  The  following  verbs  are  sometimes  found  as  semi- 
deponents  :  jUro,  jurdtusj  nUbo,  nuptaj  placeo,  piacitus. 
[For  the  regular  Derivative  Forms,  see  page  114.] 

Irregxilar  Verbs. 
[For  sum  and  its  compounds,  see  pp.  67-70.] 

137.  Several  verbs  add  some  of  the  personal  endings 
of  the  present  system  directly  to  the  root,  or  combine 
two  verbs  in  their  inflection.  These  are  called  Irregular 
Verbs.     They  are,  besides  sum,  the  following. 

138.  Volo  and  its  compounds :  viz., 

1.  volo,  velle,  volui,^  to  wish. 

2.  nolo  (non  volo),  nolle,  nolui,  to  be  unwilling. 

3.  malo  (magis  or  mage  volo),  malle,  malui,  to  wish  rather. 
These  three  are  inflected  as  follows  :  — 


PRESENT. 


INDIC.  SUBJ. 

volo  velim 

vi8(for»o/j)  veils 

vult  {volt)  velit 

volumus  velimua 
vultis  {volt  is)  velitis 

volunt  velint 


volebam       vellem 


volam,  voles,  etc. 


INDIC. 

nolo 

nonvis 

nonvult 

nolumus 

nonviiltis 

nolunt 


SURJ. 

nolim 

nolis 

nolit 

n61imus 

nolitis 

nSlint 


INDIC. 

malo 
mavis 
ma  vult 
malumus 
ma  vultis 
malunt 


5UBJ. 

malim 

mails 

malit 

malimus 

malitis 

malint 


IMPERFECT. 
ndldbam      ndUem 

*      FUTURE. 
n61am,  noles,  etc. 


malebam       mallem 


malam,  males,  etc 


volul 


volueram 


voluerim    n61ul 


PERFECT. 

n61uerim 


malul 


PLUPERFECT, 
voluissem  ndlueram    ndluissem   m&lueram 


maluerim 


m&luissem 


FUTURE    PERFECT, 
voluero  n61uero  m&luero 


'  The  supine  stem  appears  in  vuUus. 


Irregular    Verbs :   Fero^  Edo. 


91 


Pres. 
Fut. 


IMPERATIVE. 


noli,       nolite,  do  not. 

nolito,    nolitote,  thou  shalt  not,  ye  sfmll  not. 

nolitO,    nolunto,  he  shall  not.,  they  shall  not. 


Pres.  velle    voluisse      nolle 


INFINITIVE. 

noluisse 


malle      maluisse 


Pres.  VOlenS,  tuilling. 
Ger.    volendl  (late). 


PARTICIPLES. 


nolens,  unwilling-. 


139.  Pero,  ferre,  tuli,  latum,i  to  bear. 


ACTIVE. 

PASSIVE. 

INDIC. 

SUBJ. 

INDIC. 

SUBJ. 

Pres. 

fero 

feram 

feror 

ferar 

fers 

feras 

ferris 

feraris  (re) 

fert 

ferat 

fertur 

feratur 

ferimus       feramus 

ferimur 

feramur 

fertia 

feratis 

ferimini 

feramini 

ferunt 

ferant 

feruntur 

ferantur 

Imperf. 

ferebam     ferrem 

ferebar 

ferrer 

Fut. 

feram 

ferar 

Per/. 

ttili 

tulerim 

latus  sum 

latus  Sim 

Plup. 

tuleram      tulissem 

latus  eram 

latus  essem 

F.Perf. 

tulero 

latus  ero 

Imp.  Pres 

,fer 

ferte 

ferre 

ferimini 

Fut. 

ferto 

fertote 

fertor 

ferto 

ferunto 

fertor     - 

feruntor 

Inf.  Pres.  ferre 

Perf.    tulisse 

Pres.  ferri 

Perf.  latus  esse 

Fut.  laturus  esse  Fut.    latum  iri  (latus  fore) 

PART./*r^j-.ferensF«/.  laturus      /^^r/l  latus     6^^r.  ferendus 
Ger.  ferendi,  do,  dum       Sup.  latum,  tu 
140.  Edo,  edere,  edi,  esum,  to  eat  (regular  of  third  conjuga- 
tion), has  also  some  forms  directly  from  the  root  (ed)  without  a 
characteristic  vowel :  viz. , 


INDIC.      ACTIVE. 


SUBJ. 


edo  edam  (edim) 

edis  (es)  edas  (edis) 
edit  (est)  edat  (edit) 
edimus  edamus  (edimus) 

editis  (estis)  edatis  (editis) 
edunt  edant  (edint) 


INDIC.           PASSIVE.          SUBJ. 

edor 

ederis  (re) 
editur  (estur) 

edar 

edaris  (re) 
edatur 

edimur 
edimini 
eduntur 

edamur 
edamini 
edantur 

1  The  perfect  tuli  is  for  tetuli  (which  sometimes  occurs),  from  tul  in  tollo, 
the  supine  latum  for  tlatum  (cf.  tAtjto's). 


92 


Etymology :   Irregular'   Verbs. 


Imperfect. 


edebam  ederem  (easem) 

edebas  ederes  (esses) 

edebat  ederet  (esset)  etc. 

Fut.  edam,  edes,  edet,  etc. 
Per/.        edi  ederim 

Plup.       ederam      edissem 
F.  Per/,  edero  esus  ero 

Imp.  ede  (es)     edite  (este)  edere 

edito  (esto)       editote  (estote)      editor 
edito  (esto)       edunto  editor 

Part.  Pres.  edens  Fut.  esurus       Per/,  esus 
Gbr.  edendi,  o,  mn 

141.    Eo,  ire,  ivi,  Itwax,  to  go.^ 


edebar  ederer 

edebaris  (re)  edereris  (re) 
edebatur         ederetur  (essetur) 
edar,  ederis,  edetur,  etc. 
esus  sum        esus  sim 
esus  eram      esus  essem 


edimini 

eduntor 
Ger.  edendus 
Sui-.  esum,  su 

The  forms  of  eo  are  used 


impersonally  in  the  passive  ;  the  infinitive  iri  with  the  supine  in 
um  making  the  future  infinitive.  They  are  also  found  in  veneo, 
to  be  sold  (i.  e.  venum  eo,  go  to  sale'). 

The  compounds  adeo,  ineo,  and  some  others,  are  transitive,  and 
are  regularly  used  also  in  the  passive.  Pro  with  eo  retains  its 
original  d. 


INDICATIVB. 

SUBJUNCnVB. 

Pres.  S. 
P. 

eo,  is,  it 
imus,  itis,  eunt 

earn,  eas,  eat 
eamus,  eatis,  eant 

Imperf. 

ibam,  ibas,  ibat 
ibamus,  ibatis,  ibant 

irem,  ires,  iret 
iremus,  iretis,  irent 

Future 

ibo,  ibis,  ibit 
ibimus,  ibitis,  ibunt 

Per/. 
Pluperf. 

ivi  (ii) 
iveram  (ieram) 

iverim  (ierim) 
ivissem  (issem) 

Fut.  Per/,  ivero  (iero) 

Imperat.  i,  ite,  ito;  ito.itote,  eunto 

Infin.  Pres.  ire  Per/,  ivisae  (iaae)     Fut.  ituma  eaae 

Part.  Pres.   iSna,  euntis    Fut    itflrua    Ger.  eundum  (-eundus) 

142.  Facio,  facere,  feci,  factum,  to  make,  is  regular,  with  these 
peculiar  forms  :  future  perfect  faxo,  perfect  subjunctive  fazim,  im- 
perative fac.     It  has  for  its  passive 

f io,  fieri,  factua  aum,  to  be  made^  or  become., 

of  which  the  tenses  of  the  first  stem  are  regular  of  the  fourth  con- 
jugation, but  with  the  subjunctive  imperfect  fierem. 


1  Root  t,  cf.  «Tm*  ;  the  e  stands  for  el  produced  by  vowel -increase  from  i. 


Irregular  and  Defective   Verbs.  93 


INDICATIVE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres.  S. 

f  10,  f  is,  fit 

flam,  f las,  fiat 

P. 

f  iinus,  f  itis,  f  iunt 

f  iamus,  f  iatis,  f  iant 

Imp. 

f  iebam,  f  iebas,  etc. 

fierem,  fieres,  etc. 

Fut. 

fiam,  f  ies,  etc. 

Per/. 

factus  sum 

factus  Sim 

Plup. 

factus  eram 

factus  essem 

Fut.  Per/,  factus  ero 

Imperat.     f i,  f  ite,  f ito,  fito,  f itote,  f iunto 

Infin.  Pres.  fieri  P^rf.  factus  esse 

Part.  Per/,  factus  Ger.    facieudus 

a»  Most  compounds  of  facie  with  prepositions  change  a  to  i 
(present  stem),  or  e  (supine  stem),  and  are  inflected  regularly  :  as, 
conficio,  conficere,  confeci,  confectum,  to  finish. 

b.  Other  compounds  retain  a,  and  have  -f  10  in  the  passive  :  as, 
bene-facio  (-fa'cis),  -feci,  -factum;  pass,  benefio,  to  benefit. 

c.  A  few  isolated  forms  of  -f  io  occur  in  other  compounds  :  viz., 

COnflt,  it  happens,  defit,  it  lacks.  Infit,  he  begins  (to  speak). 

confiet  defiant  infiunt 

conf  iat  def  let  eflBLeri,  to  be  effected. 

confieret  deflat  interfleri,  ^^/^rwA. 

oonfieri  defieri  interfiat,  let  him  perish. 

Defective  Verbs. 

143.  Some  verbs  have  lost  their  Present  stem,  and 
use  only  tenses  of  the  Perfect,  in  which  they  are  in- 
flected regularly.     They  are  — 

a.  Coepi,^  /  began;  Infin.  coepisse;  Fut.  Part,  coepturus. 
A  passive  participle  coeptus  is  used  with  the  passive  infinitive. 
For  the  Present,  incipio  is  used. 

b.  Odi,  /  hate ;  ^  with  the  participles  osus,  hating  or  hated 
(perosus,  utterly  hateful^.,  osurus,  likely  to  hate. 

c.  Memini,  /  remember j  *  with  the  Imperative  memento,  me- 
mento te  ;  Part,  meminens. 

Note.  —  Odi  and  memini,  having  a  Perfect  form  with  a  present  meaning, 
are  called  preteritive  verbs,    Novi  and  consuevi  have  present  meaning. 

*  Root  co-AP  as  in  apiscor.  2  Root  od  in  Mium. 

8  Root  MEN,  as  in  mens. 


94  Etymology:  Defective  Verbs. 

144.  Many  verbs  have  only  the  Present  stem,  and  in 
many  the  simple  verb  is  incomplete,  but  the  parts  appear 
in  the  compounds.  Some  occur  very  commonly,  but 
only  in  a  few  forms :  as, 

a.  Aio,'  I  say  : 

Indic.  Pres.    aio,  ais,  ait ; aiiint 

hnperf.   aiebam,  (^bam),  aiebas,  &c. 
SuBj.    Pres.  aias,  aiat,  aiant 
Imperat.  ai.  —  Part,  aigns 

b.  Inquam,  say  (used  only,  except  in  poetry,  in  direct  quota- 
tions, as  the  English  quothy  which  is  perhaps  from  the  sam    root)  : 

Ind.  Pres.   inquam,  inquis,  inquit 

inquimus,  inquitis  (late),  inquiunt 

Itnperf.     Inquiebat.  — /«/.  inquies,  et. — Pf.  inquisti,  inquit. 
Imperat.  inque,  inquito. 

c.  Fari,  to  speak,  forms  the  periphrastic  tenses  regularly  :  as, 
fatus  sum,  eram,  &c.     It  has  also  — 

Ind.  Pres.  fatur,  fantur.  —  Fut.  fabor,  fabitur. 
Imperat.  fare.  —  Infin.   fari. — Part,   fauti  (with   the  com- 
pound iufans,  usually  as  a  noun),  fatus.  — Ger.  fandi,  -do. 
Gerund,  fandus,  to  be  spoken  of  (with  the  compounds  iufau- 
dus,  nefandus,  unspeakable,  abominable).  —  Supine,  fatu. 
Several  compounds   with   the  prepositions  ex,  prae,  pro,  inter, 
occur :  as,  praefdtur,  affdri,  profdtus,  interfdtur,  &c. 

d.  Quaeso,  /  ask,  beg  (an  original  form  of  quaere),  has  — 

quaeso,  quaesilmus,  quaesere,  quaesens. 

e.  Ovare,  to  triinnph,  has  the  following : 

ovat,  ovet,  ovaret ;  ovans,  ovandi,  ovatus,  ovatiirus. 

/.  A  few  are  found  chiefly  in  the  Imperative  :  as, 

salve,  salvete,  hail!  also  salvere  (from  salvus). 
ave  (or  have),  avete,  aveto,  hail  ox  farewell. 
cede,  cedite  (cette),  give,  tell. 
apage!  begone!  (properly  a  Greek  word). 


1  Root  AGH  found  in  adagium  and  in  ntgo,  which  has  passed  into  the  first 
conjugation. 


Defective  and  Impersonal  Verbs, 


95 


g.    Queo,  I  can,  nequeo,  /  cannot,  are  conjugated  like  eo.    They 
\    are  rarely  used  except  in  the  Present. 


Pres. 


Imperf. 

Fut. 
Per/. 


Plup. 

Infin. 

Part. 


INDIC. 

queo 

quia 

quit 

quimus 

quitis 

queunt 

quibam 

quibat 

quibant 

quibo 

quibunt 

quivi 

quivit 
quiverunt 


SUBJ.  INDIC. 

queam  nequeo 

(regular)  iiouquis 

nequit 
nequimus 
nequitis 
nequeunt 
nequibam 
nequibat 
uequibant 


nequibunt 

nequivi 

nequivisti 

nequivit 

nequiverunt 


quirem 

quiret 

quirent 


SUBJ. 

nequeam 

(regular) 


nequirem 


quiverit 


quissent  nequisset 

quire        quivisse  (quisse)  nequire  nequivisse 

quiena,  queuntis  uequieus 

[A  few  passive  forms  occur  in  old  writers,  as  quitus.] 


Impersonal  Verbs. 

145.  Many  verbs,  from  their  meaning,  appear  only  in 
\  the  third  person  singular,  with  the  iftfijiitive  and  gernnd. 
^  These  are  called   Impersonal  Verbs. ^     Their  synopsis 
may  be  given  as  follows :  — 

Pass.  i.  it  is  fought. 
pugnatur 
pugnabatur 
pugnabitur 
pugnatum  est 
pugnatum  erat 
pugnatum  erit 
pugnetur 
pugnaretur 
pugnatum  sit 
pugnatum  esset 
pugnari 
pugnatum  esse 
esse  pugnatum  In 


i.  it  is^lain. 

ii.  //  is  allowed. 

iii.  it  chances 

iv.  it  results. 

constat 

Hcet 

accidit 

evenit 

constabat 

licebat 

accidebat 

eveniebat 

constabit 

licebit 

accidet 

eveniet 

constitit 

licuit 

accidit 

evenit 

constiterat 

licuerat 

acciderat 

evenerat 

constiterit 

licuerit 

acciderit 

evenerit 

constet 

liceat 

accidat 

eveniat 

constaret 

liceret 

accideret 

eveniret 

constiterit 

licuerit 

acciderit 

evenerit 

constitisset 

licuisset 

accidisset 

evenisset 

constare 

licere 

accidere 

evenlre 

constitisse 

licuisse 

accidisse 

evenisse 

-staturum  esse  liciturum  esse 

eventurum 

1  With  impersonal  verbs  the  word  it  is  used  in  English,  having  usually  no  rep- 
resentative in  Latin,  though  id,  hoc,  ilhid,  are  often  used  nearly  in  the  same  way. 


96  Impersonal  Verbs ;  Periphrastic  Forms. 

146.  Impersonal  Verbs  may  be  classified  as  follows  :  — 

a.  Verbs  expressing  the  operations  of  nature:  as,  pluit,  it 
rains  J  ningit,  it  snows  y  grandinat,il  /laitsy  fnlgxxxdit,  it  tightens  j 
vesperascit  (incept.),  it  grows  late. 

In  these,  no  subject  is  distinctly  thought  of;  though  sometimes 
the  name  of  a  deity  is  expressed;  and,  in  poetic  use,  of.  other 
agents  also  :  as,  fundae  saxa  pluunt,  the  slitigs  rain  stones. 

b.  Verbs  of  feeling,  where  the  person  who  is  the  proper  subject 
becomes  the  object,  as  if  himself  affected  by  the  feeling  expressed 
in  the  verb.  Such  are,  —  miseret,  //  grieves;  paenitet  (poenitet), 
//  repents ;  piget,  //  disgusts  j  pudet,  it sha?nes j  taedet,  //  wearies: 
as,  miseret  me,  /  pity  (it  distresses  me) . 

Such  verbs  often  have  also  a  passive  form  :  as,  misereor,  /  pity 
{am  tnoved  to  pity)  ;  and  occasionally  other  parts :  as,  libens, 
licens,  paeniturus,  paenitendus,  pudendus,  pertaesum  est. 

c.  By  a  similar  construction,  the  passive  of  intransitive  verbs 
is  very  often  used  impersonally  :  as,  pugnatur,  there  is  fghting ; 
ItaXf  some  one  goes;  parcitur  mihi,  I  am  spared."^ 

d.  Verbs  which  have  a  phrase  or  clause  as  their  subject :  as, 
accidit  (contiiiglt,  evenit,  obtingit,  obvenit,  fit),  //  happens; 
libet,  it  pleases ;  licet,  //  is  permitted ;  oertum  est,  //  is  resolved; 
constat,  it  is  clear;  placet,  videtur,  //  seems  good ;  decet,  // 
is  becoming ;  delectat,  juvat,  it  delights ;  oportet,  necesse  est, 
//  is  needful;  praestat,  //  is  better;  interest,  refert,  /'/  concerns ; 
vacat,  there  is  leisure ;  restat,  superest,  //  remains. 

Note.  —  Many  of  these  verbs  may  be  used  personally.  Libet 
and  licet  have  also  the  passive  forms  Ubitum  (licitum)  est,  &c. 

Periphrastic  Forms. 

147.  The  following  periphrastic  forms  are  found  in 
the  inflection  of  the  verb:  — 

a.  The  so-called  "Periphrastic  Conjugations"  (seep.  77). 

b.  The  tenses  of  completed  action  in  the  Passive  formed  by 
the  tenses  of  esse  with  the  Perfect  Participle. 

c.  The  Future  Infinitive  Passive,  formed  —  i.  by  the  infinitive 
passive  of  eo,  to  go,  used  impersonally  with  the  Supine  in  um; 
2.  by  fore  (or  futunim  esse),  with  the  Perfect  participle ;  3.  by 
fore  with  ut  and  the  subjunctive. 

*  This  use  of  the  passive  proceeds  from  its  original  reflexive  meaning,  the  ac- 
tion being  regarded  as  accomplishing  itself  (compare  the  French  ceta  se  fait). 


Particles  :  Adverbs. 


97 


Chapter  VII.  —  Particles. 

Note. — What  are  called  Particles  —  that  is,  all  Adverbs, 
Prepositions,  and  Conjunctions  —  are  real  or  extinct  case-forms , 
or  else  compounds  and  phrases.  Many  Particles  cannot  always 
be  distinctly  classified  ;  many  prepositions  and  conjunctions  bein;^^ 
classed  also  among  adverbs. 


I. -ADVERBS. 
Derivation. 

148.  Very  many  adverbs  of  manner  are  formed  from 
Adjectives,^  as  follows  :  — 

a.  Adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  declensions  change  the  /^ 
characteristic  vowel  of  the  stem  into  e  (originally  an  ablative  in  d)  : 

as,  from  carus,  dear^  care,  dearly.^ 

b.  Adjectives  of  the ////r^^^^/^«j-z^«  add -ter^  to  the  stem.    All  -^^ 
are  treated  as  i-stems,  except  those  in  nt  (properly  participles), 
which  lose  the  t :    as,  fortiter,  bravely ;  acriter,  eagerly  j  vigi^ 
lanter,  watchfully  j   prudenter,  prudently  j  frequenter,  numer- 
ously. 

c.  Some  adverbs  of  the  former  class  have  both  forms  :  as,  from 
duruB,  dure.,  dilriter  j  from  miser,  miser e.,  miser  iter. '^ 

d.  The  neuter  accusative  of  adjectives  and  pronouns  is  often 
used  as  an  adverb  (strictly  a  cognate  accusative.,  see  Syntax)  :  as, 
multum,  much  ;  facile,  easily ;  acriua,  ?nore  keenly, 

e.  The  ablative  neuter  or  (less  commonly)  feminine  is  used 
adverbially:  as,  falso,  falsely  y  o\th,  quickly  ;  recta.  {\ria.),  straight 
{straightway)  ;  qua  (parte),  where;  crehxo,  frequently. 

Note.  —  In  many  Adverbs  and  other  Particles  the  case-form  is 
less  obvious,  and  in  some  is  doubtful.  Examples  may  be  seen  in 
the  following  :  — 

a.  Accusative  forms  :  actutum,  7idn  {ne  unum),  iterum  (comparative 
of  is\. 


1  For  the  comparison  of  these  adverbs,  see  92  (p.  45). 

2  So  abunde,  saepe,  profie,  from  adjectives  not  in  use. 
8  This  suffix  is  of  uncertain  ori<?in,  probably  the  same  as  in  the  Greek  -repo?, 

^JBld  in  alter,  uter ;  and,  if  so,  these  are  neuter  accusatives. 
*  So  aliter  from  alius ^  —  old  stem  ali-. 


98  Etymology:  Particles. 

/S.  Ablative  forms  :  contrd^  qui,  aliqui,  volgo. 

y.  Datives  of  adjectives  and  pronouns  :  as,  quo,  adeo,  ultra,  xitro,  retro 
(the  last  three  being  comparatives  of  uls,  cis,  re) ;  Hide,  illdce,  weakened 
to  illuc. 

5.  Locative  forms  :  ibi,  ubi,  peregre  (peregri),  hie,  interim,  deinde,  taviiit, 
and  the  compounds  extrinseeus,  hodie,  perendie^  olim  (o/lus). 

6.  Feminine  Accusatives  :  statim,  saltim  (generally  in  the  form  sallei/i), 
palam,  perperam,  tarn,  quam,  nam  (which  may  be  oeuters). 

^.  Plural  Accusatives,  neuter  or  feminine, y>-«j'/r/J,(?)  cUids,  fords. 

7}.  Of  uncertain  formation  :  (i)  those  in  -tus  (usually  preceded  by  /), 
as:  penitus,  funditus,  divinitus, — which  are  ablative  in  meaning;  (2) 
those  in  -dem,  -dam,  -do  (in  quan-do,  do-nee),  dum,  jam  (perhaps  from  the 
same  root  with  dies,  diu,  &c.). 

0.  Phrases  or  Clauses  which  have  grown  into  adverbs :  anted  (ace. 
pi.  or  abl.),  postmodo,  denuo  (de  novo),  prorsus,  quotannis,  quamobrem^ 
comimis,  eminus,  obviam,  pridem,  forsan,  forsitan  (^fors  sit  an),  scilicet 
{set re  licet).  ^Yq^  Numeral  Adverbs,  see  p.  49.J 

Classlflcation. 

149.  Adverbs,  other  than  those  regularly  formed  from 

adjectives,  are  classified  as  follows  :  — 

a.  Adverbs  of  Place.* 

hic,  here                 hue,  hither  hinc,  hence  hae,  by  this  7vay 

ibi,  there                eo,  thither  inde,  thence  ea,  by  that  way 

istic    „                   istiie    „  istine     „  ista             „ 

illlc    „                   illuc     „»  illinc     „  ilia  (iliac)  „ 

ubi,  where              quo,  whither          unde,  whence  qua,  by  what  way 
zWc\x\i\,  somervhere            aliquo, /t»,  &c.  alicunde,yr^//,  &c.  aliqua, /^',  &c. 

'■^y^A&vci,  in  the  same  place  eodem  „        indidem  „          eadem      ,, 

alibi,  else7uhere                   alio  „        aliunde  „           alia 

ubiubi,  7vherever               quoquo  ,,        undecunque  „           quaqua    „ 

ubivis,  anynohere               quovis  „        undique  „           quavis     „ 

sicubi,  if  anyivhere           sTquo  „        sicunde  „           siqua        „ 

x\itz\x\y\,  lest  anynohere        nequo  ,,        necunde  „           nequa      ,, 

usquam,   anywhere;   nusquam,    naivhere ;   ultro,    beyond  (or  freely,   i.e. 

beyond    what    is   required);    citro,   to  this  side;   intro,    inwardly; 

porro,  further  on. 
quorsum  (quo  vox^wrti,  whither  turned)?  to  what  end?  horsum,  Mw  tw/v  ; 

i^xox-^wm,  fonvard  (prorsus,   utterly)',  introrsum,  imvardly ;  retr«>r- 

sum,  bachuard ;  sursum,  up^vard ;   deorsum,  do^vmtuird ;  seorsunt, 

apart ;  aliorsum,  another  way. 

'  The  demonstrative  adverbs  hic,  ibi,  istic,  iUic,  and  their  correlatives,  corre- 
spond in  signification  witli  the  pronouns  hic,  is,  isie,  tile  (see  102),  and  are  often 
ecpuvalent  to  these  pronouns  witli  a  preposition  :  as,  imle  —  ab  eo,  &c.  So  the  rela- 
tive or  interrogative  ubi  corresponds  with  qui  (quis),  ali-cubi  with  aliquis,  ubiubi 
with  q/tisquif,  si-ctd't  witli  siqnis  (see  104,  105,  with  the  table  of  Correlatives 
in  106).     All  these  adverbs  arc  originally  case-forms  of  pronouns. 


Adverbs.  99 

b.  Adverbs  of  Time. 

quando  ?  when?  (interrog.)  ;  cum  (quom,  quum),  when  (relat.) ;  ut,  as. 
nunc,  now;  tunc  (turn),  then  ;  mox,  presently  ;  jam,  already  ;  dum,  while. 
prlmum  (primo),  first ;  deinde  (postea),  next  after ;  postremum  (post- 

remo),  finally ;  posteaquam,  postquam,  when  {after  that). 
umquam  (unquam),  ever;  numquam  (nunquam),  never  ;  semper,  always. 
aliquando,  at  some  time,  at  length  ;  quaiidoque  (quandocumque),  whenever. 
quotiens  (quoties),  how  often;  totiens,  so  often  ;  aliquotiens,  a  number 
quotidie,  every  day  ;  in  dies,  from  day  to  day.  \of  times. 

VkOxv^^xva.,  not  yet ;  necdum,  nor  yet ;  shi<iviV[\.,  scarce  yet ;  quam  primum, 

as  soon  as  possible  ;  saepe,  often;  crtbxo^frequently ;  ]a.mnonf  no  longer 

c.  Adverbs  of  Degree  or  Cause. 

quam,  haw,  as  ;  tzra,  so ;  quamvis,  however  much,  although  ;  quomodo, 
cur,  quare,  why  ;  quod,  quia,  because  ;  eo,  therefore.  [how. 

ita,  sic,  so;  ut  (uti),  as,  hoza  ;  utut,  utcumque,  however. 
quamquam  {i\\x2in(\\x2ivci),  although,  and  yet ;  et,  etiam,  quoque,  even,  also. 

d.  Interrogative  Particles, 

an,  -ne,  anne,  utrum,  utrumne,  num,  whether. 

nonne,   annon,  whether  not ;   numquid,   ecquid,  whether  at  all  (ecquid 

intellegis  .''  have  you  any  idea  ?) 
utrum  (num),  -ne,  whether ;  ...  an  (annon,  necne),  or. 
—  „  ...  an,  -ne  „ 

e.  Negative  Particles. 

non,  not  (in  simple  denial)  ;  hand  (hau,  haut),  minime,  not  (in  contradic- 
tion) ;  ne,  not  (in  prohibition)  ;  neve,  neu,  nor  ;  nedum,  much  less. 

ne,  lest;  neque,  nee,  nor  ;  ne  .  .  .  quidem,  not  even. 

non  modo  .  .  .  verum  (sed)  etiam,  not  only  .  .  .  but  also. 

non  modo  .  .  sed  ne  .  .  quidem,  not  only  not  .   .  but  not  even. 

si  minus,  if  not ;  qu5  minus  (qu5minus),  so  as  not. 

quin  (x^XdA..),  but  that ;  (interrog.),  why  not? 

ne,  nee  (in  compos.),  not ;  nescio,  /  know  not ;  nego,  /  say  no  (aio,  I  say 
yes);  nemo  (ne  homo),  no  one;  ne  quis,  lest  any  one ;  necopinatus, 
unexpected ;  neque  enim,ybr  .  .   .  not. 

150.  Two  negatives  are  equivalent  to  an  affirmative  :  as, 

nemo  non  audiet,  every  one  will  hear. 

a.  This  is  especially  frequent  with  compounds  of  non :  as,  non- 
nullus  (=aliquis),  some  (at  any  rate);  nonnihil  (=aliquid), 
something;  nonnemo  (=  aliquot),  sundry  persons;  nonnum- 
quam  (=  aliquotiens) ,  sometimes;  necnon,  also. 

b.  On  the  other  hand,  nemo  non,  nuUus  non,  every  one;  nihil 
non,  every  thing ;  numquam  non,  always,  &c. 

151.  The  following  require  special  notice  :  — 

a.  Etiam  (et-jam)  is  stronger  than  quoque,  and  usually  precedes 
the  emphatic  word,  while  quoque  follows  it :  as, 

terret  etiam  nos  ac  minatur  (Rose.  Am.  40),  us  also  he  terrifies  and 

threatens. 
hoc  quoque  malehcium  (id.),  this  crime  too. 


lOO  Etymology:  Particles, 

b.  Nunc  means  definitely  the  present  thne ;  jam,  already  (or, 
with  the  future,  presently)  ;  with  negatives,  no  longer,  with  refer- 
ence to  the  past.  Tunc,  then,  is  a  strengthened  form  of  turn, 
which  is  correlative  with  cum,  when :  as, 

non  est  jam  lenitati  locus,  tliere  is  no  longer  rootnfor  mercy. 

quod  jam  erat  institutum,  which  had  conie  to  be  a  practice. 

nunc  quidem  deleta  est,  tunc  florebat  (Lael.  4),  nmv  ('tis  true)  she 

[Greece  j  is  ruined,  then  she  was  in  her  glory. 
tum  cum  regnabat,  at  the  time  [when]  he  reigned. 

c.  Certo  means  certainly ;  certe  (usually),  at  any  rate;  as, 
certo  acio,  I  know  for  a  certainty  ;  ego  certe,  I  at  least. 

d.  VxvcaMXQ.,  first  {first  in  order,  or  for  the  first  time),  is  usually 
followed  by  deinde,  tum,  .  .  .  denique.     Thus  — 

primum  de  genere  belli,  deinde  de  magnitudine,  tum  de  impera- 
tore  deligendo  (Manil.  2),  first  of  the  kind  of  war,  next  of  its 
magnitude,  then  of  the  choice  of  commander. 

The  adjective  forms  of  primus  are  used  of  persons  and  things 
with  respect  to  other  persons  and  things.  Primum  and  prime 
(adverbs)  rather  modify  the  predicate  :  primum,  as  first  of  a 
series  ;  primo  (more  unconnected),  giving  prominence  to  the 
change  of  time. 

e.  Quidem,  indeed,  emphasizes,  and  often  has  a  concessive 
meaning,  especially  when  followed  by  sed,  autem,  »S:c.  :  nunc 
quidem,  now,  "'tis  true.  With  ne  .  .  .  quidem,  not  e^fen  or  not 
.  .  .  either,  the  emphatic  word  must  stand  between  :  as, 

senex  ne  quod  speret  quidem  habet  (C.  M.  19),  an  old  man  has  not 

any  thing  to  hope  for  even. 
sed  ne  Jugurtha  quidem  quietus  erat  (Jug.  51)1,  but  Jugurtha  was  not 

quiet  EITHER. 

2.-PREPOSITIONS. 

152.  The  Latin  Prepositions  are  regularly  used  with 
some  special  case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun,  either  the  accu- 
sative or  the  ablative.^ 


'  Prepositions  are  not  originally  distinguished  from  Adverbs  in  form  or  mean- 
ing, but  only  specialized  in  use,  as  above.  Most  of  them  are  true  case-forms :  as, 
conirR,  infril,  supra  (comparative  abl.),  circum,  coram,  cum  (ace),  clrcUer,  Proc- 
ter (compare  8S  d).  Of  the  remainder,  versus  is  a  participle  of  verto,  rarely  used 
without  another  preposition ;  adversus  is  a  comjwund ;  while  tlie  origin  of  the 
brief  forms  o^,  ad,  de,  ex,  oi^  trans,  is  obscure  and  doubtful. 


Prepositions.  lOi 

a.  The  following  are  used  with  the  Accusative  :  — 

ad,  to.  erga,  towards,  post,  after. 

adversus,  against,  extra,  outside.  praeter,  beyond. 

adversum,  towards,  infra,  below.  prope,  near, 

ante,  before.  inter,  among.  -pro-ptex,  on  account  of  < 

apud,  at,  near.  intra,  inside.  secundum,  next  to. 

circa,  or  juzta,  near.  supra,  above. 

circum,  around.  ob,  on  accoutit  of.  trans,  across. 

circiter,  about.  penes,  in  the  power,  ultra,  on  the  further  side. 

cis,  citra,  this  side,  per,  through.  versus,  towards. 

contra,  against.  pone,  behind. 

b.  The  following  are  used  with  the  Ablative  :  —  "^ 

a,  ab,  abs,  away  from.,  by.  e,  ex,  out  of. 

absque,  without,  but  for.  prae,  in  comparison  with. 

coram,  in  presence  of.  pro,  in  front  of  for. 

cum,  with.  sine,  without. 

€ie,from.  tenus,  up  to,  as  far  as. 

c.  The  following  may  be  used  with  either  case,  but  strictly  with 
a  difference  in  meaning  :  — 

in,  into,  in;  sub,  u?tder;  subter,  beneath;  super,  above. 
In  and  sub,  when  followed  by  the  Accusative,  indicate  motion  to, 
when  by  the  Ablative,  rest  in,  a  place. 

153.  Some  idiomatic  uses  of  the  prepositions  may  be 
seen  in  the  following  :  — 

A,  ab,  AWAY  FROM  ^  (opposite  of  ad)  :  — prope  ab  urbe,  near  (not  far 
from)  the  city  ;  liberare  ab,  to  set  free  from  ;  occisus  ab  hoste  (periit  ab 
hoste),  slain  by  an  enemy ;  ab  hac  parte,  on  this  side ;  ab  re  ejus,  to  his 
advantage  ;  a  republica,yj7r  the  interest  of  the  state. 

Ad,  TO,  TOWARDS,  AT,  NEAR  :  —  ad  tempus,  at  the  (fit)  time ;  adire  ad 
rempublicam,  to  go  into  public  life;  ad  petendam  pacem,  to  seek  peace  ; 
ad  hunc  modum,  in  this  -way ;  quem  ad  modum,  how,  as ;  ad  centum, 
near  a  hundred ;  ad  hoc,  besides  ;  omnes  ad  unum,  all  to  a  man. 

Ante,  IN  FRONT,  BEFORE  :  —  ante  urbem  captam,  before  the  city  was 
taken;  ante  diem  quintum  (a.D.V.).  Kal.,  the  fifth  day  before  the  Calends 
(the  3d  day  before  the  last  of  the  month) ;  ante  Qyx2i^x\&xm\\xxi\,  four  years 
before  or  ago  ;  ante  tempus,  too  soon. 

Apud,  at,  by,  AMONG,  rarely  of  places  :  —  apud  populum,  before  the 
people  ;  apud  aliquem,  at  one's  house  ;  apud  se,  at  home,  or  in  his  senses  ; 
apud  Ciceronem,  in  Cicero  (in  his  works). 

^  ab  signifies  direction  from,  the  object,  but  often  towards  the  speaker  ;  com- 
pare da  and  ex- 


I02  Etymology:  Particles. 

Circum,  circa,  circiter  (stem  as  in  circus,  circle)^  ABOUT,  AROUND  : 
circum  haec  loca,  hereabout ;  circa  se  habent,  they  have  with  them.  Of 
time  or  number,  aWa  or  circiter  (not  circum)'. — circa  eandem  horam, 
about  the  same  hour  ;  circiter  passus  mille,  about  a  mile. 

Contra  (abl.  comp.  of  cum),  opposite,  against  :  —  contra  Italiam, 
over  against  Italy ;  haec  contra,  this  in  reply  ;  contra  autem,  but  on  the 
other  hand  (adv.)  ;  quod  contra,  whereas  on  the  other  hand  (adv.). 

Cum,  WITH  (together  in  place  or  time)  :  — cum  malo  suo,  to  his  own 
hurt ;  confligere  cum  hoste,  to  fight  with  the  enemy  ;  esse  cum  telo,  to  go 
armed ;  cum  silentio,  in  silence. 

De,  FROM,  DOWN  FROM,  CONCERNING:  —  uiius  de  plebe,  om  of  the 
people ;  qua  de  causa,  for  which  reason  ;  de  improviso,  of  a  sudden  ;  de 
industria,  on  purpose ;  de  integro,  anew;  de  tertia  vigilia, /«j/  at  mid- 
night (starting  at  the  third  watch)  ;  de  mense  Decembri  navigare,  to 
sail  as  early  as  December. 

Ex,  e,  FROM  (the  midst,  opposed  to  in)  out  of: — ex  hoc  A\ty  frotn 
this  day  forth  ;  ex  consulatu,  right  after  his  consulship  ;  ex  ejus  sententia, 
according  to  his  opinion;  ex  aequo,  justly ;  ex  improviso,  unexpectedly; 
ex  tua  re,  to  your  advantage  ;  magna  ex  parte,  in  a  great  degree ;  ex  equo 
pugnare,  to  fight  on  horseback  ;  ex  usu,  expedient. 

In  with  icc,  INTO  (opp.  to  ex) :  —  amor  in  (erga^  adversus)  patrem, 
lorve  for  his  father ;  in  aram  confugit,  he  fled  to  the  altar  (on  the  steps  or 
merely  to)  ;  in  d\t.%,from  day  to  day  ;  in  longitudinem,  in  length  ;  in  haec 
verba  jurare,  to  swear  to  these  words  ;  hunc  in  modum,  in  this  way  ;  oratio 
in  Catilinam,  a  speech  against  Catiline  ;  in  perpetuum,/<7r  ever  ;  in  pejus, 
for  the  xvorse  ;  in  diem  vivere,  to  live  from  hand  to  mouth.  With  abl., 
IN,  ON,  AMONG :  —  in  urbe  esse,  to  be  in  town  ;  in  tempore,  ///  season  ;  in 
scribendo,  tvhile  writing;  est  mihi  in  animo,  /  have  it  in  mind;  in 
ancoris,  at  anchor ;  in  hoc  homine,  in  the  case  of  this  man. 

Infra,  helovv  :  —  infra  caelum,  under  the  sky  ;  infra  Homerum,  later 
than  Ilomcr ;  infra  iii.  pedes,  less  than  three  feet. 

Inter,  hetween  (with  two  ace),  among: — inter  bibendum,  while 
drinking;  inter  se  loquuntur,  they  talk  together  ;  inter  nos,  between  our- 
sck'ts. 

Ob,  towards  (in  place),  on  aooount  of:  —  ob  oculot,  before  the 
eyes  ;  ob  earn  causam,  for  that  reason  ;  quam  ob  rem,  wherefore. 

Per,  TiiKoiGH  (in  any  direction)  :  —  per  urbem  ire,  to  go  through  the 
city;  licet  per  me,  you  may  for  all  me  ;  per  jocom,  in  jest. 

Prae,  in  front,  hy  reason  of:  —  prae  »e  ferre,  A»  carry  before  him 
{exhibit  or  make  known) ;  prae  gaudio  conticuit,  he  was  silent  for  Joy ; 
prae  raagnitudine  corporum  suorum,  in  comparison  with  their  own  bigness. 

Praeter,  by  (on  the  outside),  besides: — praeter  spem,  beyond  hope; 
prteter  oculos,  before  the  eyes. 

Pro,  in  from  of,  in  behalf  of,  instead  of  (facing  the  same 
iray)  :  — pro  populo,  in  presence  of  the  people  ;  pro  lege,  in  defence  of  the 


Prepositions  ;   Conjunctions.  1 03 

law;  pro  hac  vice,  for  this  once;  pro  consule,  in  place  of  consul;  pro 
viribus,  considering  his  strength  ;  pro  virili  parte,  to  the  best  of  one's  ability. 

Propter,  near,  by  :  —  propter  te  sedet,  he  sits  next  you ;  propter 
metum,  through  fear. 

Secundum,  just  beyond,  following  (part,  of  sequor)  :  —  ite  se- 
cundum me  (Plaut.),  go  behind  me ;  secundum  litus,  near  the  shore; 
secundum  flumen,  along  the  strea?n  (secundo  flumine,  down  stream); 
secundum  naturam,  according  to  nature. 

Sub,  UNDER:  —  sub  montem  succedere,  to  come  close  to  the  hill ;  sub 
noctem,  towards  night ;  sub  lucem,  near  daylight ;  sub  haec  dicta,  at 
these  words  ;  sub  Jove,  in  the  open  air  ;  sub  monte,  at  the  foot  of  a  hill ; 
sub  eodem  tempore,  about  that  time. 

Super,  ABOVE,  over:  —  vulnus  super  vulnus,  wound  upon  wound ; 
super  Indos,  beyond  the  Hindoos  ;  super  tali  re,  about  such  an  affair ; 
satis  superque,  enough  and  more. 

Supra  (comparative),  on  the  top: — supra  banc  memoriam,  before 
our  remembrance  ;  supra  morem  more  than  usual ;  supra  quod,  besides. 

Ultra,  BEYOND  (on  the  further  side) :  — ultra  eum  numerum,  more 
than  that  number ;  ultra  fidem,  incredible;  ultra  modum,  immoderate ; 
non  plus  ultra,  nothing  further. 

[For  Prepositions  in  Compounds,  see  170.] 


3.-CONJUNCTIONS. 
Classification. 

154.  Conjunctions  like  adverbs  are  petrified  cases  of 
nouns  or  pronouns.  They  are  more  numerous,  and  their 
use  is  much  more  accurately  distinguished,  in  Latin  than 
in  English.     They  are  divided  into  two  classes,  viz. :  — 

a.  Co-ordinate: — these  include  Copulative  (and),  Disjunc- 
tive (or),  Adversative  (but),  Causal  (for),  Illative  (there- 
fore) . 

b.  Subordinate: — these  are  Conditional  (if),  —  including 
Comparative  (as  if),  Concessive  (though,  even  if),  —  Tem- 
poral (when),  Consecutive  (so  that),  Final  (in  order  that). 

155.  The  following  list  ^  includes  most  of  the  conjunc- 
tions and  conjunctive  phrases  in  common  use  :  — 


'  Some  of  these  have  been  included  in  the  classification  of  Adverbs,  and  a  list 
^'      of  Interjections  has  been  added.     See  also  list  of  Correlatives,  page  57. 


104  Etymology :  Particles, 


Co-ordinate. 

A.   COPULATIVE  AND   DISJUNCTIVE. 

et,  -que,  atque  (ac),  and. 

et  .  .  .  et ;  et  .  .  .  -que  (atque) ;  -que  .  .  .  et ;  -que  .  .  .  -que  (poet.), 

both  .  .  .  and. 
etiam,  quoque,  neque  non  (necnon),  quinetiam,  itidem  (item),  also. 
cum  .  .  .  turn;  turn  .  .  .  tum,  both  .  .  .  and ;  not  only  .  .  .  but  alsc 
qua  .  .  .  qui,  on  one  hand,  on  the  other  hand, 
modo  .   .  .  modo,  now  .  .   .  now. 
aut  .  .  .  aut ;  vel  .  .  .  vel  (-ve),  either  .  .  .  or. 
sive  (seu)  .  .  .  sive,  whether  .  .  .  or. 

nee  (neque)  .  .  .  nee  (neque)  ;  neque  .  .  .  nee;  nee  .  .  .  neque  (rare), 

neither  .  .  .  nor. 
et  .  .  .  neque,  both  .  .  .  and  not. 
nee  .  .  .  et;  nee  (neque)  .  .  .  -que,  neither  .  .  .  and, 

B.   ADVERSATIVE, 
sed,  autem,  verum,  vero,  at,  atqui  but. 

tamen,  attamen,  sed  tamen,  verumtameft,  but yety  nevertheless, 
nihilominus,  none  the  less. 
at  vero,  enimvero,  but  {for)  in  truth. 
ceterum,  on  the  other  handy  but. 

C.   CAUSAL  AND  ILLATIVE.* 
nam,  namque,  enim,  etenim,ybr. 
quia,  quod,  because. 

quoniam,    quippe,    cum    (quom),    quando,    quandoquidem,   siquidem, 

utpote,  since^  inasmuch  as. 
propterea  (   .  .  .  c^nod) ,  for  this  reason  (   .  .  •  that). 
quapropter,  quare,  quamobrem,  quocirca,  unde,  wherefore,  whence. 
ergo,  igitur,  itaque,  ideo,  idcirco,  proinde,  therefore,  accordingly. 

Subordinate.' 

D.  CONDITIONAL. 

si,  //;  sin,  but  if ;  nisi  (ni),  unless,  if  not ;  quod  si,  but  if . 
modo,  dum,  dummodo,  si  modo,  if  only,  provided. 
dummodo  ne  (dum  ne,  modo  n&),  provided  only  not. 

E.  COMPARATIVE. 

ut,  uti,  sicut,  velut,  prout,  praeut,  ceu,  as,  like  as. 
tamquam  (tanquam),  quasi,  utsi,  ac  si,  as  if. 
quam,  atque  (ac),  as,  than. 

1  Several  of  these  are  often  used  also  to  introduce  subordinate  clauses. 

2  Sec  Syntax,  Chap.    V.,  for  the  use  of  these  particles  in  subordinate  clauses. 


Conjunctions.  105 

F.    CONCESSIVE.!  i 

etsi,  etiamsi,  tametsi,  tamenetsi,  quamquam  (quanquam),  although. 

quamvis,  quantumvis,  quamlibet,  however  much. 

licet  (properly  a  verb),  ut,  cum  (quom,  quum),  though,  suppose,  whereas. 

G.     TEMPORAL. 

cum  (quom),  cum  primum,  ubi,  ut,  ut  primum,  postquam,  when. 
prius  .  .  quam,  ante  .  .  quam,  <^^^r^;  non  ante  .  .  quam,  not  .  .  until. 
quando,  simul  atque  (simul  ac),  simul,  as  soon  as. 
dum,  usque  dum,  donee,  quoad,  until. 

H.     CONSECUTIVE  AND    FINAL. 

ut  (uti),  quo,  ut,  so  that,  in  order  that. 

ne,  ut  ne,  lest  {in  order  that  not) ;  neve  (neu),  nor. 

quin  (after  negatives),  quominus,  but  that  (so  as  to  prevent). 

Interjections. 

O,  en,  ecce,  ehem,  papae,  vah  (of  astonishment). 

io,  evae,  evoe  (of  joy). 

heu,  eheu,  vae,  alas  I  (of  sorrow). 

heus,  eho,  ehodum,  hoi  (of  calling). 

eia,  euge  (of  praise). 

proh  (of  attestation) :  as,  proh  pudor,  shame! 

156.  The  following  are  the  conjunctions  whose  mean- 
ing or  use  chiefly  requires  to  be  noticed  :  — 

a.  Et,  and,  connects  independent  words  or  clauses  ;  -que  (en- 
clitic) combines  closely  into  one  connected  whole;  atque  (some- 
times ac  before  consonants)  adds  with  emphasis.  In  the  second 
member,  and  not  is  expressed  by  Deque  or  nee. 

Atque  (ac),  as,  than,  is  also  used  after  words  of  comparison 
and  likeness  :  as,  idem,  the  same;  simul,  as  soon;  aliter,  otherwise. 

b.  Sed  and  verum  or  vero  (more  forcible),  but,  are  used  to 
contradict  what  precedes,  regularly  after  negatives  ;  at,  yet,  intro- 
duces with  emphasis  a  new  point,  especially  in  argument  (at  enim 
almost  always)  alluding  to  a  supposed  statement  on  the  other  side  ; 
autem  {however^  is  used  in  the  same  way,  especially  in  transitions, 
but  with  le«s  force.  Atqui  sometimes  introduces  an  objection, 
sometimes  a  fresh  step  in  the  reasoning.  Quod  si,  but  if,  is  used 
to  continue  a  statement.     Ast  is  old  or  poetic. 

1  A  concessive  is  often  followed  by  an  adversative ;  as  tamenetsi  .  .  tamen 
I        nihilominuS)  though  .  .  .  yet  none  the  less. 


io6  Etymology :   Particles. 

c.  Aut,  or^  excludes  the  alternative  ;  vel  (-ve)  gives  a  choice ; 
aive  (seu)  is  properly  used  in  disjunctive  conditions,  but  is  also 
used  with  single  words,  —  especially  two  names  for  the  same  thing. 
But  Oi  aut  and  vel  the  use  is  not  always  clearly  distinguished. 
Vel  {even)  is  used  tc  express  a  climax ;  vel  minimus,  the  very 
least. 

d.  Nam  (namque),  for^  usually  introduces  a  reason  ;  enim, 
an  explanatory  circumstance  ;  etenim  {for,  you  see;  for,  you 
know),  something  self-evident,  or  needing  no  proof  (negatively, 
nee  or  neque  enim), 

e.  Ergo,  therefore,  is  used  of  things  proved  logically  ;  itaque, 
in  proofs  from  the  nature  of  things  ;  igitur,  then  (a  weak  ergo), 
in  passing  from  one  stage  of  the  argument  to  another,  often  merely 
to  resume  ;  idcirco,  for  this  reason,  to  call  attention  to  a  special 
point,  followed  regularly  by  a  clause  with  quod,  quia,  si,  or  ut. 

f  Quia,  because,  regularly  introduces  a  fact  ;  quod,  either  a 
fact  or  a  statement  or  allegation  ;  quoniam  (quom  jam),  since^ 
has  reference  to  motives. 

g.  Quom  (cum),  when,  is  always  a  relative  conjunction,  often 
a  correlative  with  tum  ;  quando  is  used  also  as  interrogative  or 
indefinite  (quando?  when?  si  quando,  if  ever). 

h.  Conjunctions,  especially  those  of  relative  origin,  frequently 
have  a  correlative  in  the  preceding  clause,  to  which  they  correspond. 
So  too  the  same  conjunction  is  often  repeated  in  two  coordinate 
clauses.     Examples  are  the  following  :  — 

Et  .  .  .  et  means  simply  both  .  .  .  and ;  cum  (less  fre- 
quently tum)  .  .  .  tum  emphasizes  the  second  member,  with 
the  meaning  not  only  .  .  .  but  also ;  while  .  .  .  so  too.  Other  forms 
are  modo  .  .  .  modo,  nunc  .  .  .  nunc,  jam  .  .  .  jam,  simul  .  .  . 
simul,  qua  .  .   •  qua. 

i.  The  concessives  (etsi,  quamvis,  etc.)  may  introduce  either  a 
fact  or  a  supposition  ;  and  are  regularly  followed  by  the  correlative 
tamen,  yet,  nevertheless.  Of  these  ut  often  has  the  meaning 
suppose,  even  if;  cum,  whereas,  while  on  the  other  hand.  Quam- 
quam  (rarely  etsi  or  tametsi),  and  yet,  but,  however,  may  intro- 
duce an  independent  statement  to  limit  and  correct  the  preceding, 
often  by  a  sudden  transition  :  as,  quamquam  quid  loquor?  but 
what  am  I  saying  ? 

fc.  Autem,  enim,  vero,  always  follow  one  or  more  words  in  their 
clause  ;  the  same  is  generally  true  of  igitur,  and  often  of  tamen. 
[For  the  Syntax  of  these  Particles,  see  208]. 


Formation  of  Words.  107 


Chapter  VIII.  —  Formation  of  Words. 

1.  —  Roots  and  Steins.^ 

157.  The  Root  is  the  simplest  (most  primitive)  form 
in  which  the  general  meaning  of  a  word  can  be  traced. 
Stems  are  formed  from  roots,  and  are  divided  into 
two  main  groups :  viz.,  Noun-stems  (including  adjec- 
tives) and  Verb-stems.2 

Note.  —  Some  roots  show  no  trace  of  any  meaning  except  one 
of  position  or  direction,  and  are  called  Pronominal  Roots. 

158.  Roots  may  be  used  as  Stems  :  — 

a.  Without  change :  as,  dUc-is,  dux;  nec-is,  nex. 

b.  With  vowel-increase  :  as,  liic-is,  lux;  pdc-is,  pax. 

c.  With  reduplication  :  2,^^  fur-fur,  mar-?nor.  mur-mur. 

d.  Compounded  :  as,  jil-dic-is,  judex  (Jus,  died) ;  eon-jug-is,  eon- 

jux  {con-jungo). 

159.  Stems  are  more  commonly  formed  by  means  of 
Suffixes  consisting  of  Pronominal  Roots  :^ 

a.  Primary  :  added  to  the  Root.* 

b.  Secondary:  added  to  a  Stem,  either  with  or  without  the 
above  changes. 

3. —  Primary  Suffixes. 

160.  Primary  Suffixes  (/.  e.  those  added  directly  to  the 
Root)  were,  in  their  original  form,  the  following :  — 

a.  The  Vowels  a,  i,  u. 

b.  The  Syllables  ta,  ti,  tu  ;  na,  ni,  nu 

ma,  va,  ra,  ya,  ka 

an,  as,  ant ;  man,  tar,  tra 

^  See  21,  22,  p.  9. 

2  Both  Roots  and  Stems  were  at  the  earUer  stages  of  the  Indo-European  lan- 
guage significant,  and  capable  of  being  used  without  inflection.  Thus  neither  roots 
nor  stems  are  mere  abstractions,  though  they  have  not  been  used  as  words  in  any 
existing  language  of  the  family.  Many  stems  could  be  used  indiscriminately  to 
make  verbs  or  nouns  (See  Introductory  Note,  p.  117). 

Examples  of  roots  are  ES,  be;  i,  go;  sta,  stand;  cap,  take;  dug,  lead; 
FAC,  make ;  fer,  bear ;  rap,  seize;  sed,  sit ;  ten,  stretch  (see  also  pp.  84,  85) ; 
DA  (ao),  give;  DHA  (eE),  put.  8  A  few  suffixes  are  verbal  or  doubtful. 

*  The  Root  is  in  this  case  often  lengthened  by  vowel-increase  also. 


io8  Etymology:   Formation  of  Words, 

The  Vowel  suffixes  a,  i,  u,  are  sometimes  regarded  as  if  merely 
added  to  the  root  to  fit  it  for  inflection  ;  but  they  are,  in  fact,  true 
pronominal  Roots,  and  must  be  regarded  as  formative  suffixes. 

The  first,  a,  is  found  in  nouns  and  adjectives  of  a-  and  o-stems,  as 
sonus,  ludus,  vagus, scriba,  toga  (root  teg)  ;  ^  —  i  is  less  common,  and  in 
Latin  has  frequently  been  changed,  as  in  riipes,  or  lost  as  in  scobs 
{scobis,  root  scab); — u  is  disguised  in  most  adjectives  by  an  addi- 
tional i,  as  in  sud-vis,'^  ten-uis  (root  TEN  in  tendo),  and  remains  alone  only 
in  nouns  of  the  fourth  declension,  as  acus  (root  AK,  sharp^  in  acer,  ades, 
u)Kv%),pecu  (root  PAC,  bind,  va pac-iscor). 

The  signification  of  the  other  primary  suffixes  is  as  follows  :  — 
a.  ta  (in  the  form  to-)  makes  the  regular  perfect  participle,  as  tectus, 
tectum  ;  sometimes  active,  as  in  potus,  pransus  ;  and  is  found  in  a 
few  not  recognized  as  participles,  as  putus,^  altus  {a/o). 
fi.  ti  forms  abstracts,  rarely  nouns  of  agency,  as   messis,  vestisy  pars, 
mens  (where  the  i  is  lost). 

7.  tu  forms  abstracts  (including   supines),  sometimes   becoming  con- 

cretes, as  actus,  luctus. 

8.  na,  forming  perfect  participles  in  other  languages,  in  Latin  makes 

adjectives  of  like  meaning,  which  often  become  nouns,  as  magnus 

{—mactus,  root  uag),  plenus,  regnum  (compare  ^a^^«). 
«.  ni,  forms  nouns  of  agency  and  adjectives,  as  ignis^  segnis. 
C  nu  is  rare,  as  in  manus,  sinus. 

Tj.  ma  has  various  meanings,  as  in  animus,  cUmus ,  Jirmus,  forma. 
6.  va  (commonly  uo-) has  active  or  passive  meaning,  as  in  equus,arvumt 

conspicuus,  exiguus,  vaclvus  {vacuus). 
K.  ra  (or  la,  a  passive  participle  termination  in  other  languages)  is  usually 

passive,  as   in  ager,  integer,  plert-que  (=^plenus  =pletus),  scfla  (for 

sed-la,  cf.  «5pa). 
A.  ya  (forming  gerundives  in  other  languages)  makes  adjectives  and 

abstracts,  including  many  of  the  first  and  fifth  declensions,  cs 

eximius,  auddcia,  Florentia,  per  nicies. 
/*.  ka,  sometimes  primary,  as   in  pauci  (cf.  iravpos),  locus.*    In  many 

cases  the  vowel  of  this  termination  is  lost,  leaving  a  consonant- 
stem  :  as,  apex,  cortex,  and  probably  loquax. 
V.  an  (in,  on-),  in  nouns  of  agency  and  abstracts  :  as,  aspergo,  compdgo 

(fnis),  gero  {dnis). 
{.  man  (men:   also  used  as  a  conscious  derivative)  expresses  means, 

often  passing  into  the  action  itself  :  as,  agmen,flum^n. 


'  Observe  that  it  is  the  stem,  not  the  nominative,  that  is  formed  by  the  suffix, 
although  the  nominative  is  here  given  for  convenience  of  reference. 

8  For  suad-vis,  cf.  ^«-v?.  *  Root  pu,  whence  pHrus. 

«  For  stlocus,  cf.  Sk.  sthara^  sthala^  Ger.  StelU,  Eng.  stail. 


Noun-Endings,  109 

o.  tar,  forming  nouns  of  agency;  diS,  pater  (i.e.  protector  ),/rJ/'^r  (sup- 
porter), orator. 

IT.  tra,  forming  nouns  of  means  :  as,  claustrum,  mulctrum. 

p.  as  (sometimes  phonetically  changed  into  er,  or),  forming  names  of 
actions  :  as,  genus,  furor. 

<T.  ant,  forming  active  participles  :    as,  legens,  with  some  adjectives 
from  roots  unknown  :  zs,,frequens,  recens. 
The  above,  with  some  suffixes  given  below,  belong  to  the  original 

language,  and  most  of  them  were  not  felt  as  living  formations  in  the 

historical  period.    But  developed  forms  of  these,  with  a  few  other  primary 

suffixes,  were  used  consciously,  generally  as  secondary  suffixes  added  to 

noun  or  verb-stems. 

3.  —  Significant  Sndings. 

161.  Derivative  Nominal  (noun  and  adjective)  forms 
include, —  i.  Nouns  of  Agency;  2.  Names  of  Actions  ; 
3.  Adjectives  (active  or  passive).^ 

162.  Nouns  of  Agency  include  active  adjectives  and 
appellatives.     Their  significant  endings  are  — 

a.  tor^  (euphonically  sor),  m.  ;  trix,  f.  :    as, 

cano,  sing :  cantor,  singer ;  cantrix,  songstress. 
vinco  (vie),  conquer :  victor,  victrix,  conqueror  {victorious). 
tondeo,  shear :  tonsor,  tonstrix,  hair-cutter.  ' 

peto,  seek:  petitor,  candidate. 

This  termination  may  be  added  by  analogy  to  noun-stems  :  as, 

via,  way ;  viator,  traveller. 

b.  Sb  (Itis),   c,  descriptive  nouns  :    as, 

miles,  soldier;  hoapes,  guest. 

c.  o  (onis),  M.,  connected  with  specific  acts  or  trades  :  as, 

caupo,  a  huckster;  combibo,  pot-companion. 

1  The  derivative  endings  in  conscious  use,  by  which  these  are  denoted,  are 
given  in  the  Nominative  form.  These  suffixes  are  sometimes  obscure,  from  the 
fact  that  after  a  pattern  has  been  given  in  one  form  of  stem,  that  form  is  taken  as 
a  type,  and  others  are  made  to  conform  to  it.  Thus  adjectives  in  -driiis  are  prop- 
erly formed  from  A  or  o  stems ;  but  after  nrius  is  established  as  a  termination,  it 
may  be  added  to  almost  any  noun  :  as,  honordritis ,  So  in  English  we  form  bear, 
able,  think-able,  with  a  suffix  which  is  properly  -ble^  as  in  legi-ble,  tolera-ble. 

2  This  termination  is  added  to  the  verb  stem  or  root,  and  has  the  same  euphoni(j 
change  as  the  supine  ending  turn  or  sum:  compare  amd-tufn,  amd-tor ;  can^ 
turn,  can-tor ;  ton-sitm,  tonsor.  A  similar  change  is  made  in  the  terminations 
tio,  tiira,  tus  (see  below,  163.  b). 


no  Etymology:  Formatio7t  of  Words, 

163.  Names  of  Actions  (passing  into  abstracts,  instru- 
ments, or  results)  are  derived  from  roots  or  verb-stems. 
Their  significant  endings  are  — 

a.  or,  M.,  ea,  is,  f.  ;  us,  ur,  n.  from  roots  :  as, 

Umeo, /tear:  timor,  dread;  sedeo,  sit :  sedes,  seat. 
decet,  it  is  becoming :  decus,  grace,  beauty. 

b.  io,  tio,  tura,  tus  (sio,  sura,  sus),  making  Verbal  Abstracts, 

those  in  tus  being  more  concrete  :  as, 

lego,  gather y  enroll;  legio,  legion. 
insero  (sa),  implant;  insitio,  grafting, 
pingo  (pig),  paint;  pictura,  picture, 
aentio,  feel;  sensus,  perception. 

c.  men,  mentum,  monium,  n.,  monia,  f.,^  denoting  act,  means, 

RESULT  :  as, 

fruor,  enjoy ;  frumentum,  grain. 

testor,  to  witness ;  testimonium,  testi?nony. 

queror,  complain  ;  que ri monia,  complaint. 

d.  bulum,  culum,  brum,  crum,  trum,  n.,  from  verb-stems  (rarely 

from  nouns) :  denoting  means  or  instrument  :  as, 

candela,  ca?idle ;  candelabrum,  candlestick. 
tus  (turis),  incense;  turi bulum,   a  censer. 
veho,  carry ;  vehiculum,  cart,  vehicle. 
simulo,  feign,  pretend;  simulacrum,  image. 
claudo,  to  shut;  claustrum,  a  bolt. 
^dACO^Jeed;  pabulum, yb^^r. 

e.  ia,  tia,  tas,  tus,  tudo  (do,  go),  f.,  abstracts  (chiefly)  from 

adjective  stems,   rarely  becoming  r^wrr^/^/  as. 
durus,  hard ;  dijritia  (ies),  sternness. 
audaz,  bold;  audacia,  daring. 
honuB,  good;  bonitas,  kindness,  fertility. 
senex,  aged  (an  old  man)  ;  senectus,  old  age. 
solus,  alone ;  solitudo,  solitude. 
libet  (lubet),  it  pleases ;  libido,  wantonness,  self-will. 

Stems  ending  in  o,  a,  regularly  change  those  vowels  to  i.^  Many 
consonant-stems  insert  i  after  the  analogy  of  i-stems,  as  loquacitas. 

f.  ium  (ya  primary  suffix)  forms  neuter  abstracts,  —  usually  from 

Nouns,  giving  the  sense  of  offices  or  groups  :  as, 

hospes,  a  guest ;  hospitium,  hospitality. 

servus,  ^7  slave;  servitium,  the  slave-class,  slavery. 

collSga,  a  colleague;  collegium,  a  college  (as  of  augurs). 

'  Primary  Suffixes  niau,  man-ta,  man-yo. 

'  It  is  {)<)ssible  that  this  i  may  have  been  originally  a  stem-vowel  (compare  ka 
in  note  on  "  Primary  Suffixes)." 


Adjective  Endings.  1 1 1 

164.  Adjective  forms,  often  passing  into  Nouns,  are 
Nominal  (from  nouns  or  adjectives),  or  Verbal  (from 
verb-stems  or  roots).     Their   significant  endings  are  — 

NOMINAL. 

a.  ulus  (after  a  vowel  -61us ;  also  -cio,  -cuius),  ellus,  illus,  — 

DIMINUTIVES  with  endings  for  gender :  as, 

rivus,  a  brook;  rivulus,  a  streamlet. 
gladius,  a  sword;  gladiolus,  a  small  sword. 
homo,  a  man :  homunculus  (homuncio),  a  dwarf. 
munus,  a  gift ;  munusculum,  a  little  gift. 
puer,  a  boy ;  puella  (puerula),  a  girl. 
c5dex,  a  block ;  codicilli,  writing-tablets. 

b.  ades  (as,  f.),  ides,  ides  (is,  eis,  f.),  eus,  patronymics,  denot- 

ing Parentage,  &c.  :  as, 

Tyndareus  :  Tyndarides,  Castor  or  Pollux ;  Tyndaris,  Helen. 

Oileus  :   Ajax  Oileus,  son  of  Oileus. 

Atlas  :  Atlantiades,  Mercury ;  Atlantiades  (Greek),  the  Pleiads. 

c.  anus,  enus,  inus ;  is,  as,  ensis  ;  ius,  acus,  icus,  eus,  eius,  icius, 

iacus,  gentile  adjectives  (derived  from  the  names  of  places 
or  peoples)  ;  with  others  denoting  belonging  to  or  coming 
FROM  :  as, 

Roma:   Romanus,  7?6'w««y  Sulla:  ^v^dim^  Sy lids  veterans. 
Cyzicus  :  CyzxcQvn,  people  of  Cysictcs;  Liguria,  Ligurinus. 
Arpinum  :  ArpTnas,  a  native  of  Arpinum  (as  Marius,  Cicero). 
Sicilia:   Siciliensis  ;  Ephesus:  Ephesius  ;  Ilium:   Iliacus. 
Epiciirus  :   Epicureus  {a  disciple)  ;  Plato  :   Platonicus. 
libertus,  one'' s  freedman ;    llbertlnus,  of  the  class  of  freedmen. 

d.  alis,  aris,  elis,  ilis,   iilis,  inus,  nus,  denote  various   modes  of 

relation  or  possession  :  as, 

populus,  a  people;  popularis,  fellow-countryman. 

mors,  death;  mortalis,  mortal. 

patruus,  uncle ;  patruelis,  cousin. 

hostis,  an  ene7ny ;  hostilis,  hostile. 

currus,  chariot ;  sella  curulis,  curtile  chair. 

vitulus,  a  calf;  vitullna  [caro],  veal. 

ver,  spri?ig ;  vernus,  vernal ;  dies,  day ;  diurnus,  daily. 

ovis,  a  sheep ;  ovile,  sheepfold;  bos,  ox;  bovlle,  stall. 

e.  ter  (tris),  timus,  ternus,  denote  relations  of  place,  time,  &c.  :  as, 

campus,  a  plain;  campester,  level. 

fines,  boundaries ;  finitimus,  neighboring. 

diu,  long  (in  time)  ;  diuturnus,  lasting. 

heri  (old  \iq^\)^  yesterday  ;  hes  ternus,  of  yesterday  > 


112  Etymology:   Formation  of  Words. 

f.  atus,  itus,  utus  (participial  forms  from  imaginary  verb-stems, 

like  the  English  horned),  provided  with  :  as, 

galea,  a  helmet;  galeatus,  helmed. 
auris,  a7i  ear ;  aurltus,  long-eared  (a  hare) . 
barba,  a  beard;  barbatus,  bearded  (old-fashioned), 
versus,  a  turning ;  versutus,  crafty,  adroit. 

g.  eus,  ius,  inus,  aceus,  icius  (participial),  material  or  rela- 

tion :  as, 

anmra.,  gold ;  aureus,  golden. 

rex,  a  kifig ;  regius,  royal. 

bombyx,  silk ;  bombycinus,  silken. 

patres,  the  Fathers  (Senators)  ;  patricius,  patrician. 

coUatus,  brought  together;  collaticius,  got  by  contribution. 

h.  alius,  oriuB,  ius,  icus,  belonging  to  (m.,  of  trades,  &c.  ;  n., 
often  of  place)  :  as, 

argentum,  sili'er ;  argentarius,  broker,  silversmith. 

ordo,  rank^  series ;  ordinarius,  regular. 

tepidus,  lukewarm;  tepid^rium,  place /or  a' Tvarm  bath. 

uxor,  wife ;  uxorius,  uxorious. 

bellum,  war ;  beliicus,  warlike;  bellicum,  battle-signal. 

i.  etum,  PLACE  :  as, 

quercus,  oak-tree;  quercetum,  an  oak-grove. 

k.  osus,  Glens,  olentus,  full  of,  prone  to  :  as, 

fluctus,  wave ;  fluctu5sus,  billowy. 
periculum, /^r///  \>Qr\cu\b?,u^,  full  of  danger, 
•via,  force ;  violens,  violentus,  violent. 
vmum,  wine;  vTnolentus,  vxnbsus,  given  to  drink, 
ira,  anger ;  Iracundus,  passionate,  wrathful. 

verbal. 
/.  az,  idus,  ulus,  vus  (uus,  ivus),  adjectives,  expressing  the  action 
as  quality  or  tendency,  —  az,  often  faulty  or  aggressive ; 
ivus,  oftener  passive  :  as, 

pugno,  tof^ht;  pugnax,  pugnacious. 

audeo,  to  dare ;  audax,  bola. 

cupio,  to  desire;  cupidus,  eager. 

bibo,  to  drink;  bibulus,  thirsty  (as  dry  earth,  &c.). 

protero,  to  trample ;  pr6tervus,  violent,  wanton. 

noceo,  do  harm  ;  nocuus,  hurtful,  injurious. 

capio,  take;  captlvus,  captive;  VL.,  a  prisoner  of  war. 

m.  ilia,  bills,  ius,  passive  qualities  (rarely  active)  :  as, 

frango  (frag),  to  break ;  fragilis,/)-/!^//. 

nosco  ((JNo),  to  know  ;  nobilis,  well  known,  famous. 

ezimo,  to  take  out,  select;  eximius,  choice,  rare. 


Adjective  Endings  ;    Formation  of  Verbs.        1 1  j 

tt.  minus,  mnus,  properly  participles/  but  no   longer  used  as 
such  :  as, 

FE  (obsolete  root) ,  produce ;  femina,  woman. 
alo,  to  nourish;  alumnus,  a  foster-child. 

o.  ndus  (endus,  undus,  the  Gerund  ending)  forms  a  few  active 
or  reflexive  adjectives  :  as, 

seqxxoXf  to  follow ;  secundus,  second,  favorable  (secundo  flu- 
mine,  down  stream). 

roto,  to  whirl  (from  rota,  wheel)  ;  rotundus,  round  (cf.  vol- 
vendis  mensibus,  revohnng  ?nonths). 

p.  bundus,  cundus,  participial,  but  denoting  continuance  of  the 

act  or  quality  :  as, 

vito,  to  shun;  vitabundus,  (Sail.),  dodging  about. 
vagor,  to  roam  ;  vagabundus,  vagrant,  vagabond. 
morior,  to  die;  moribundus,  in  the  agony  of  death. 

4.  — Derivation  of  Verbs. 

165.  Most  verbs  of  the  Third  Conjugation,  the 
Irregular  verbs,  and  a  few  vowel-stems,'-^  are  primitive.^ 
Most  others  are  either  cmtsative  or  denominative  (formed 
from  nouns  or  adjectives). 

166.  The  following  are  the  regular  Conjugational 
forms  :  — 

a.  Verbs  of  the  First  conjugation  may  be  formed  from  a  great 
number  of  nouns  or  adjectives  of  the  first  or  second  declension, 
by  changing  the  stem-vowel  into  the  characteristic  a  :  as, 

stimulus,  a  goad ;  stimulare,  incite. 

aequus,  just;  aequare,  to  make  equal. 

sal  turn  (salio),  leaP;  saltare  (freq.),  to  dance. 

A  few  by  a  false  analogy  add  the  vowel  to  the  noun- stem  :  as, 

vigil,  watchful ;  vigil-a-re,  to  keep  guard, 
exsul,  an  exile ;  exsul-a-re,  to  be  in  banishment. 
aestus,  tide^  seething;  aestu-a-re,  to  surge,  boil. 
hiems,  winter;  hiem-a-re, /^i-j"  the  winter. 

'  Compare  Greek  -^ei'o?.  *  As  dd-re,  stS-re,Jle-re,  nd-re,  ne-re,  re-ri. 

3  The  consciousness  of  Roots  was  lost  in  Latin,  so  that  of  verbs  not  primitive 
in  forming  the  parts  only  Stems  are  dealt  with.  Thus  moneo  (Skr.  man-aya-mi), 
monui  (not  menui),  from  root  men,  as  in  mens ;  caedo,  cecldi  (not  ccctdi),  from 
root  CAD  (as  in  cddo).  For  modifications  of  the  root  in  verb-stems,  see  pp.  8,i,  85. 
The  derivative  suffix  in  the  regular  conjugations  is  original  ya  added  either  to  the 
root,  the  Present  stem  in  a,  or  a  Noun-stem. 


114  Etymology:   Formation  of  Words. 

b.  A  few  verbs  of  the  Second  conjugation  are  formed  in  like 
manner  from  noun-stems  ;  but  most  are  formed  from  the  Root  by 
adding  the  characteristic  e,  and  are  intransitive  or  neuter  in  their 
meaning  :  as,  algere,  to  be  cold;  sedere,  to  sit. 

c.  Some  verbs  in  uo  (Third  conjugation)  are  primitive,  formed 
from  the  Root  by  adding  the  stem-vowel  6,  originally  S  :  as,  flu-e-re^ 
rv~e-re.  Others  add  this  vowel  to  a  noun-stem;  this  is  regular 
with  u  stems  :  as, 

statu-s,  condition;  statu-e-re,  to  establish,  resolve, 

d.  Most  verbs  of  the  Fourth  conjugation  add  the  character- 
istic i  to  the  Root :  as,  sop-ire,  to  put  to  sleep;  sal-i-re,  to  leap. 
Some  are  formed  from  i-stems  (nouns)  :  as, 

fini-s,  etid,  limit ;  f  ini-re,  to  bound. 
siti-s,  thirst;  siti-re,  to  be  thirsty, 

5.  —  Derivatlvf  Verbs. 

167.  The  following  classes  of  regular  derivatives  have 
meanings  corresponding  to  their  form  :  — 

a.  Inceptives  or  Inchoatives  end  in  -sco,  and  denote  the 
beginning  of  an  action  :  as,  calesco,  /  grow  tuarm  (caleo)  ;  ves- 
perascit,  //  is  getting  late  (vesper).  They  are  of  the  third  conju- 
gation, and  have  only  the  present  stem,  though  often  completed  by 
forms  of  simple  verbs  :  as,  calesco,  calui  (from  caleo,  to  be  hot).^ 

b.  Intensives  or  Iteratives*  end  in  -to  or  -ito  (rarely-so), 
and  denote  a  forcible  or  repeated  action  :  as,  jacto,  to  hurl 
(jacio)  ;  dictito,  to  keep  on  saying  (dice)  ;  quasso,  to  shatter 
(quatio).  They  are  of  the  first  conjugation,  and  are  properly 
Denominative,  derived  from  the  participle  in  tus. 

c.  Another  form  of  Intensives — sometimes  called  Meditatives, 
or  verbs  oi  practice  —  ends  in  esso  (rarely  isso),  denoting  a  certain 
energy  or  eagerness  of  action  :  as,  capesso,  to  lay  hold  on  ;  facesso, 
to  do  (with  energy)  ;  petisso,  to  seek  (eagerly).  They  are  of  the  3d 
conjugation,  usually  having  the  perfect  and  supine  of  the  4th  :  as, 

lacesso,  lacessere.  lacessivi,  lacessitum,  to  pro^foke. 

d.  Diminutive:s  (derived  from  real  or  supposed  diminutive 
nouns)  end  in  -illo,  and  denote  a  feeble  or  petty  action  :  as,  can- 
tillare,  to  chirp  or  warble  (cano.  sing). 

1  In  the  narrative  tenses,  the  inceptive  and  complete  action  naturally  become 
confounded. 

2  Itcratives  (or  Frequentatives),  though  distinct  in  meaning  from  Intensives, 
are  not  always  distinguished  from  them  in  form. 


Compound   Words.  115 

e.  Desideratives  end  in  urio,  expressing  longing  or  wish^  and 
are  of  the  fourth  conjugation.  Only  three  are  in  common  use  : 
viz.,  empturio  (emo,  buy)^  esurio  (edo,  eat^^  parturio  (pario, 
bring  forth).  Others  occur  for  comic  effect  in  the  dramatists. 
They  are  derived  from  some  noun  of  agency  in  tor  or  sor  (as 
empturio.,  from  e??tptor).  Viso  is  a  regular  inherited  desiderative 
of  an  earlier  formation. 

6. —  Compound  Words. 

168.  New  stems  are  formed  by  composition  as  fol- 
lows :  ^  — 

a.  The  second  part  is  simply  added  to  the  first :  as, 

8u-ove-taurilia   (sus,  ovis,  taurus),  the  sacrifice  of  a  hog, 

sheep,  bull. 
septen-decim  (septem,  decem),  sevetiteen. 

b.  The  first  modifies  the  second  as  an  adjective  or  adverb  :  as, 

latifundiutu  (latus,  fundus),  a  large  landed  estate. 
paeninsula  (paene,  insula),  a  peninsula.  SJcindly. 

benevolua    (bene,    volus,  from   root  of  volo),  well-wishing, 

c  The  first  part  has  the  force  of  a  case,  and  the  second  a  verbal 
force  :  as, 

agricola  (ager,  colo),  a  farmer. 
armiger  (arma,  gero),  arriior-bearer. 
cornicen  (cornu,  cano),  horn-blower. 
carnifex  (caro,  facio),  executioner. 

d.  Compounds  of  either  of  the  above  kinds,  in  which  the  last 
word  is  a  noun,  acquire  the  signification  of  adjectives,  meaning 
possessed  of  the  property  denoted :  as, 

alipes  (ala,  pes),  wing-footed. 

magnanimus  (magnus,  2in\xw\?>).,  great-souled. 

concors  (cum,  cor),  harmonious. 

ancepa  (amb-,  caput),  doubtful  (having  a  head  at  both  ends). 

'  In  these  compounds  only  the  second  part  receives  inflection.  This  is  most 
commonly  the  proper  inflection  of  the  last  stem  ;  but,  as  this  kind  of  composition 
is  in  fact  older  than  inflection,  the  compounded  stem  sometimes  has  an  inflection 
of  its  own  (as,  cornicen.,  -cinis ;  hicifer,  -feri  ;  judex,  -diets),  from  stems  not  occur- 
ring in  Latin.  Especially  do  adjectives  in  Latin  take  the  form  of  i-stems  :  as> 
animus,  exanimis  ;  norma,  abnormis  (See  Note,  p.  37).  The  stems  regularly  have 
their  uninflected  form.  But  o-  and  a-stems  weaken  the  vowels  to  i  as  in  ali^ 
pes ;  and  i  is  so  common  a  termination  of  compounded  stems,  that  it  is  often 
added  to  stems  which  do  not  properly  have  it :  as,  foedi-fragus  (for  foederis 
fragus:  foedus,  frango). 


Il6  Etymology:    Compound  Words, 

169.  In  many  compounds,  words  already  inflected  have 
grown  together  more  closely.     Examples  are  — 

a.  Compounds  of  facie,  facto,  with  an  actual  or  formerly  exist- 
ing verbal  stem  in  e.  These  are  Causative  in  force  :  as,  consue- 
facio  (consuesco),  to  habituate ;  calefacio,  calefacto,  to  heat. 

b.  An  adverb  or  noun  combined  with  a  verb :  as,  benedico 
(bene,  dico),  to  bless;  satago  (satis,  ago),  to  be  busy  enough. 

c.  Many  apparent  stem-compounds  :  as,  fidejubeo  ( ndei, 
jubeo),  to  give  surety ;  mansuetua  (manui,  suetus),  tame. 

170.  Many  compounds  are  formed  by  prefixing  a 
Particle  to  some  other  part  of  speech :  viz., 

a.  Prepositions  are  prefixed  to  Verbs  or  Adjectives,  retaining 
their  original  adverbial  sense  :  ^  as, 

a.  ab,  AWAY  :  au-ferre  (ab-fero),  to  take  away. 
ad,  TO,  TOWARDS  :  af-ferre  (ad-fero),  to  bring. 

ante,  before  :  ante-ferre,  to  prefer ;  ante-cellere,  to  excel. 

circum,  around  :  circum-mQnlre,  to  fortify  completely. 

com,  con  (cum),  together  or  forcibly  :  con-ferre,  to  bring 

together;  col-locare,  to  set  firm. 
de,  down,  utterly  :  de-spicio,  despise;  destruo,  destroy. 
e,  ex,  OUT  :  ef-ferre  (ec-fero),  to  carry  forth.,  uplift. 
in  (with  verbs),  in,  on,  against  :  in-ferre,  to  bear  against. 
inter,  between,  to  pieces  :  inter- rumpere,  to  interrupt. 
ob,  towards,  to  meet  :  of-ferre,  to  offer ;  ob-venire,  to  meet. 
sub,  under,  in  low  degree:  i=,\xh-sir\xQ\e,  to  build  beneath. 
super,  upon,   over  and  above  :   super-fluere,   to  overflow; 

superstes,  a  survivor. 

b.  Verbs  are  also  compounded  with  the  following  inseparable 
Particles,  which  do  not  appear  as  prepositions  in  Latin : 

amb  (am,  an),  around  :  ambire,  to  go  about  (cf.  uf^pi). 
dis,  di,  asunder,  apart  :  discedere,  to  depan  (cf.  duo), 
por,  forward  :  portendere,  to  hold  forth.,  predict  {zi.  porro). 
red,  re,  back  :  redlre,  to  return. 
aed,  ae,  apart  :  secerno,  to  separate  (cf.  aed,  but^. 

c.  An  adjective  is  sometimes  modified  by  an  adverb  prefixed. 
Of  these,  per  (less  commonly  prae),  very,  aub,  somewhat^  in,  not^ 
are  regular,  and  may  be  prefixed  to  almost  any  adjective  :  as, 

per-magnua,  very  large;   piae-longua,  very  long. 
aub-ruaticuB,   rather  cloivnish ;   in-f  initua,  boundless. 

'  They  sometimes,  however,  have  the  force  of  prepositions,  especially  ad,  in, 
circuttif  trans,  and  govern  tlic  case  of  a  noun. 


PART     SECOND. 


USE     OF     WORDS     (SYNTAX). 


INTRODUCTORY    NOTE. 

The  study  of  formal  grammar  arose  at  a  late  period  in  the  history 
of  language,  and  deals  with  language  as  fully  developed.  The  terms 
of  Syntax  correspond  accordingly  to  the  logical  habits  of  thought  that 
have  grown  up  at  such  a  period,  and  have  therefore  a  logical  as  well  as 
a  simply  grammatical  meaning.  But  Syntax  as  thus  developed  is  not 
essential  to  language  as  such,  A  form  of  words  —  like  O  puerum  pul- 
crum  !  —  may  express  a  thought,  and  in  some  languages  might  even  be 
a  sentence ;  while  it  does  not  logically  declare  any  thing,  and  does  not, 
strictly  speaking,  make  what  we  call  a  sentence  at  all. 

At  a  very  early  period  of  spoken  language,  there  is  no  doubt  that 
Roots  were  significant  in  themselves,  and  constituted  the  whole  of  the 
language,  —  just  as  to  an  infant  the  name  of  some  familiar  object  will 
stand  for  all  it  can  say  about  it.  At  a  somewhat  later  stage,  two 
simple  roots  put  side  by  side  ^  make  a  rudimentary  form  of  proposition : 
as  a  child  might  say  Jire  bright ;  horse  run.  With  this  begins  the 
first  form  of  logical  distinction,  that  of  Subject  and  Predicate ;  but 
as  yet  there  is  no  distinction  between  noun  and  verb  either  in  form  or 
function.  Roots  are  presently  specialized,  or  modified  in  meaning,  by 
addition  of  other  roots  either  pronominal  or  verbal,  and  Stems  are 
formed  :  but  the  same  stem  could  still  be  either  noun-stem  or  verb- 
stem.  Still  later — by  combination  chiefly  of  different  pronominal  ele- 
ments with  verb-stems  and  with  noun-stems  —  Inflections  are  developed 
to  express  person,  tense,  case,  and  other  grammatical  relations,^  and  we 
have  true  parts  of  speech. 

Not  until  language  reached  this  last  stage  was  there  any  limit  to  the 
association  of  words,  or  any  rule  prescribing  the  manner  in  which  they 
should  be  combined.     But  gradually,  by  custom,  particular  forms  came 

^  Q.-s!\tdi parataxis,  in  contrast  with  Syntaxis,  "combination." 
2  Sometimes  called  accidents:  hence  the  "  accidence  "  of  the  language.     Com- 
pare pp.  14,  N.  I  ;  63,  N.  2  ;  65,  N.  i. 


Ii8  Syntax:    Introductory  Note. 

to  be  limited  to  special  uses,  or  were  produced  to  serve  those  uses  ; 
and  rules  were  established  for  combining  words  in  what  we  now  call 
Sentences.!  These  rules  are  in  part  general  laws  or  forms  of  thought 
(Logic),  resulting  from  our  habits  of  mind  (General  Grammar) ;  and 
in  part  are  what  may  be  called  By-Laws,  established  by  custom  in  a 
given  language  (Particular  Grammar),  and  making  what  is  called  the 
Syntax  of  that  language.2 

In  the  fully  developed  methods  of  expression  to  which  we  are  almost 
exclusively  accustomed,  the  unit  of  expression  is  the  Sentence  ;  that 
is,  the  completed  statement,  with  its  distinct  Subject  and  Predicate. 
These,  starting  with  the  simple  noun  and  verb,  undergo  successive 
modifications  and  combinations  corresponding  with  our  habitual  forms 
of  thought,  and  constitute  the  subject-matter  of  Syntax  as  shown  in  the 
annexed  Outline. 

L  A  Sentence  may  be  either  Simple  or  Compound  :  viz., 

1.  Simple  :  containing  a  single  statement  (Subject  and  Predicate). 

rr^vfoniivr,    S  ^-  Containing  two  or  more  Co-ordinate  Clauses. 

2.  i^ompound:  ^  ^    Modified  by  Subordinate  Clauses  {com/>Ux). 

IL  The  Essential  Parts  of  the  Sentence  are  — 

1.  The  Subject  :  consist-  (  a.  Noun  or  its  equivalent. 

ing  of  \  b.  Pronoun  contained  in  verb-ending. 

rr.1      T>  {  O"  Neuter  (intransitive)  Verb. 

2.  The  Predicate:  con-   I  ^   Copula  with  Complement. 

s.stmg  of  I  ^    V^[b  ^^itl^  Object 

III.  The  Subject  and  Predicate  may  be  Modified  as  follows  :  — 


[.  The  Noun  {Subject  or 
Object)  by 


a.  Noun  in  Apposition. 

b.  Adjective  or  Participle. 

c.  Noun  in  Oblique  Case. 

d.  Preposition  with  its  ^ase. 

e.  Relative  Clause. 


ia.  Adverb  or  Adverbial  Phrase. 
b.  Predicate  Adjective. 
c.  Subordinate  Clause. 

r  a.  Rules  of  Agreement  {the  Four  Concords). 
IV.        Hence  :  j  ^    ^y^\^^  of  Government  {Construction  of  Ccues). 

'  The  meaning  of  Sentence  is  "  Thought "  {sentent'ta  from  sentire).  The 
grammatical  form  of  the  sentence  is  the  form  in  which  the  thought  is  expressed. 

'  In  piost  languages  there  still  remain  traces  of  the  unorganized  forms  of 
expression  ;  as  for  example  the  nominative  or  accusative  in  Exclamations,  the 
use  of  1  nterjections  generally,  and  the  omission  of  the  Copula.  These  are  some- 
times wrongly  regarded  as  cases  of  Ellipsis. 


The  Sentence :    Subject  and  Predicate.  119 

Chapter  I. —  The  Sentence, 

Definitions. 

171.  A  Sentence  is  a  form  of  words  which  contains 
either  a  Statement,  a  Question,  an  Exclamation,  or  a 
Command. 

a.  A  sentence  in  the  form  of  a  Statement  is  called  a  Declar- 
ative Sentence  :  as,  equus  currit,  tke  horse  runs. 

b.  A  sentence  in  the  form  of  a  Question  is  called  an  Inter- 
rogative Sentence  :  as,  equusne  currit  ?  does  the  horse  runf 

c.  A  sentence  in  the  form  of  an  Exclamation  is  called  an 
Exclamatory  Sentence  :  as,  quam  celeriter  currit  equus ! 
how  fast  the  horse  runs  ! 

d.  A  sentence  in  the  form  of  a  Command  is  called  an  Impera- 
tive Sentence  :  as,  currat  equus,  let  the  horse  run. 

Subject  and  Predicate. 

172.  The  Subject  of  a  sentence  is  the  person  or  thing 
spoken  of  ;  the  Predicate  is  that  which  is  stated  of  the 
Subject. 

173.  Every  complete  sentence  must  contain  a  Subject 
and  a  Verb.^  The  Subject  (when  declined)  is  in  the 
Nominative  Case  :  as, 

equus  currit,  the  horse  runs. 
regina  sedet,  the  queen  sits. 
Note.  —  In  certain  constructions  the  verb  is  in  the  Infinitive 
mood,  and  its  subject  is  put  in  the  Accusative. 

174.  The  Subject  of  a  sentence  is  usually  a  Noun, 

or  some  word  or  phrase  used  for  a  noun.     But  in  Latin 

it  may  be  contained  ^  in  the  termination  ^  of  the  verb 

itself  :  as, 

sedemus,  w^j-zVy  cvixxixha, you  run. 


^  The  meaning  of  Verb  {verbum)  is  "word,"  as  being  the  only  part  of  speech 
that  strictly  declares  (predicates)  any  thing. 

'  This  is  true,  however,  in  general,  only  when  the  verb  is  of  the  first  or  second 
person  (cf,  206).  With  the  third  person  on  account  of  the  variety  of  possible 
subjects  a  definite  one  must  be  expressed,  unless  implied  in  what  goes  before  or 
follows.  '    See  p.  63,  n.  2 


I20  Syntax:    The  Sentettce. 

175.  The  Verb  may  contain  an  entire  statement  in 
itself,  and  require  no  other  word  to  complete  the  sense 
(a  Neuter  or  Intransitive  verb) :  as, 

aro,  I  plough  {am  ploughing). 

sol  lucet,  the  sun  shines. 

sunt  viri  fortes,  there  are  brave  men. 
Thus,  as  in  the  first  example,  a  sentence  in  Latin  may  consist 
of  a  verb  alone.     The  verb  to  be,  used  as  in  the  last  example  to 
make  a  complete  statement,  is  called  the  Substantive  Verb. 

1176.  A  Neuter  verb  is  often  followed  by  a  noun  or 
an  adjective  to  define  the  subject.  This  is  called  the 
Complement  :  as, 

Quintus  sedet  judex,  Quintus  sits  [as]  judge. 
Caesar  victor  incedit,  Casar  advances  victorious. 
hi  viri  sunt  fortes,  these  men  are  brave. 

a.  The  verb  to  be,  when   thus   followed   by  a  complement,  is 
'  called  the  Copula  (i.e.  link).     In  like  manner,  verbs  signifying 

to  become,  to  be  ?nade,  to  be  named,  to  appear,  and  the  like,  which 
serve  to  connect  a  Subject  with  a  Predicate,  are  called  Copula- 
TiVK  (i.e.  cotipling  or  connecting)  Verbs. 

b.  The  case  of  the  Predicate  after  esse  and  similar  verbs  is  the 
same  with  that  of  the  Subject  (see  184)  :  as, 

Roma  est  patria  nostra,  Rome  is  our  native  place. 

stellae  lucidae  erant,  t/ie  stars  were  bright. 

puerum  decet  esse  modestum,  //  becomes  a  boy  to  be  modest. 

177.  The  action  of  many  verbs  (called  transitive,  pass- 
ing over)  immediately  affects  some  person  or  thing  called 
the  Direct  Object.  Intransitive  verbs  may  have  an 
Indirect  Object.     Cf.^  and  224. 

pater  vocat  f  ilium,  the  father  calls  (his)  son. 
videmus  lunam  et  Stellas,  we  see  the  moon  and  stars. 

Note.  — The  distinction  between  transitive  and  intransitive  is 
not  fixed,  but  most  transitive  verbs  can  be  used  without  an  object, 
and  many  intransitive  verbs  with  one  (see  237.  b). 

a.  The  direct  Object  of  atransitive  verb  becomes  its  Subject  when 
in  the  Passive  voice,  and  is  put  in  the  Nominative  Case  :  as, 

filius  apatre  vocatur,  the  son  is  called  by  [his]/rt///rr. 

luua  et  stellae  videntur,  the  moon  and  stars  appear  {are  seen). 


The  Object:   Modification.  12 1 

b.  With  certain  verbs,  the  genitive,  dative,  or  ablative  may  be 
Used  where  the  corresponding  English  verbs  from  a  difference  in 
meaning  require  the  objective.     Thus  — 

*.  hominem  video,  I  see  the  man  (Accusative). 
1.  homini  servio,  I  serve  the  man  (Dative). 

3.  hominls  misereor,  I  pity  the  7nan  (Genitive). 

4.  homine  amico  utor,  /  treat  the  man  as  a  friend  (Ablative). 

c.  Many  verbs  transitive  in  Latin  are  translated  in  English  by  a 
verb  requiring  a  preposition  (intransitive)  :  as, 

petit  aprum,  he  aims  at  the  boar. 

Note.  —  One  or  more  words,  essential  to  the  grammatical  com- 
pleteness of  a  sentence,  but  clear  enough  to  the  mind  of  a  hearer, 
are  often  omitted :  this  is  called  Ellipsis,  and  the  sentence  is 
called  an  Elliptical  Sentence. 

Modification. 

178.  A  Subject  or  a  Predicate  of  any  kind  may  be 
modified  by  single  words,  or  by  a  Phrase  or  a  Clause. 
The  modifying  w^ord  or  group  of  words  may  itself  be 
modified  in  the  same  way. 

a.  A  single  modifying  word  is  either  an  Adjective,  an  Adverb, 
an  Appositive,  or  the  oblique  case  of  a  Noun.  Thus  in  the  sen- 
tence <?  brave  man  suffers  patiently^  the  adjective  (5r^^'^  modifies  the 
subject  man^  and  the  didvtrh  patiently  modifies  the  predicate  suffers. 

b.  The  modifying  word  is  in  some  cases  said  to  limit  the  word 
to  which  it  belongs.  Thus  in  the  sentence  pueri  patrem  video, 
/  see  the  bo/s  father,  the  genitive  pueri  limits  patrem  (i.e.  by 
excluding  any  other  father). 

179.  A  Phrase  is  a  group  of  words,  without  subject 
or  predicate  of  its  own,  which  may  be  used  as  an  Adjec- 
tive or  Adverb. 

Thus  in  the  sentence  he  was  a  man  of  great  strength,  the  words 
of  great  strength  are  used  for  the  adjective  strong  (or  very 
strong),  and  are  called  an  Adjective  Phrase.  In  the  sentence 
he  came  with  great  speed,  the  words  with  great  speed  are  used  for 
the  adverb  quickly  (or  very  quickly),  and  are  called  an  Adverbial 
Phrase. 


122  Syntax:   The  Sentence, 

\     180.  A    Sentence   containing  a   single   statement   is 
^called  a  Simple  Sentence.     If  it  contains  more  than 
one  statement,  it  is  called  a  Compound  Sentence,  and 
each  single  statement  in  it  is  called  a  Clause. 

\  a.  \i  one  statement  is  sirpply  added  to  another,  the  clauses  are 
said  to  be  Co-ordinate.  The  two  are  usually  connected  by  some 
word  called  a  Co-ordinate  Conjunction  (see  p.  104). 

\b.  If  one  statement  is  subordinate  to  another,  as  modifying  it  in 
ome  way,  the  clause  is  said  to  be  Subordinate,  and  the  sen- 
tence is  sometimes  called  Complex.  This  subordination  is  in- 
dicated by  some  connecting  word,  either  a  Relative  or  Subordinate 
Conjunction. 
\  c.  Any  clause  introduced  by  a  Relative  is  called  a  Relative 
Clause  ;  if  by  an  Adverb  of  Time,  a  Temporal  Clause. 

d.  A  clause  containing  a  Condition,  introduced  by  if  or  some 
equivalent,  is  called  a  Conditional  Clause.  A  sentence  modi- 
fied by  a  conditional  clause  is  called  a  Conditional  Sentence. 

e.  A  clause  expressing  the  Purpose  of  an  action  is  called  a 
Final  Clause  ;  one  expressing  its  Result  is  called  a  Consecu- 
tive Clause. 1 

/.  Sentences  or  clauses  are  regularly  connected  by  means  of 
Conjunctions  ;  but  frequently  in  Latin  —  more  rarely  in  English 
—  independent  sentences  are  connected  by  Relatives.  In  this 
case,  the  relative  is  often  best  translated  in  English  by  a  con- 
junction with  a  demonstrative  (see  336.  r.)  :  as, 

quo  cum  venisset,  and  when  he  had  come  there. 
quae  cum  ita  sint,  and  since  these  things  are  so, 

Agrreement. 

181.  A  word  is  said  to  Agree  with  another  when  it 
is  required  by  usage  to  be  in  the  same  Gender,  Number, 
Case,  or  Person. 

182.  The  following  are  the  general  forms  of  Agree- 
ment, sometimes  called  the  Four  Concords: 

1  Observe  that  these  classes  are  not  exclusive,  but  that  a  single  clause  may 
belong  to  several  of  them  at  once.  Thus  a  Relative  clause  may  be  subordinate, 
or  conditional ;  and  two  subordinate  clauses  nuy  be  co-ordinate  with  each  other. 


Agreement :  Nouns,  123 

1.  The  agreement  of  the  Noun  in  Apposition  or  as  Predicate. 

2.  The  agreement  of  the  Adjective  with  its  Noun. 

3.  The  agreement  of  the  Relative  with  its  Antecedent. 

4.  The  agreement  of  the  Verb  with  its  Subject. 

When  a  word  takes  the  gender  or  number  of  some  other  word 
implied  in  that  with  which  it  should  agree,  this  use  is  called 
Synesis,  or  constructio  ad  sensuin. 

NOUNS. 

183.  A  noun  used  to  describe  another,  and  denoting  ^0 
the  same  thing,  agrees  with  it  in  Case  :  as, 

Servius  rex,  Servius  the  king. 

ad  urbem  Athenas,  to  the  city  [of]  Athens. 

Cicero  consul  creatur,  Cicero  is  chosen  consul. 

Apposition. 

184.  When  the  descriptive  noun  is  in  the  same  part    > 
of  the  sentence  with  the  described,  it  is  called  an  Ap- 
posiTiVE,  and  the  use  is  called  Apposition  :  as, 

externus  timor,  maximum  concordiae  vinculum,  jungebat  animos  (Liv. 

ii.  39),  fear  of  the  foreigner,  the  chief  bond  of  harmony,  united  hearts. 

[Here  both  nouns  belong  to  the  subject.] 
quattuorliic,  primum  onien,equos  vidi  (^n.  iii.  537),  I  saw  here  four 

horses,  the  first  omen.     [Here  both  nouns  are  in  \.\\t  predicate. \ 
litteras  Graecas  senex  didici  (Cat.  M.  8),  /  learned  Greek  when  an  old 

man.     [Here  senex  is  in  apposition  with  the  subject  of  didici, 

expressing  the  time,  condition,  Sec,  of  the  act.] 

a.  An  appositive  with  two  or  more  nouns  is  in  the  plural :  as, 
Gnaeus  et  Publius  Scipiones,  the  Scipios,  Cneius  and  Publius. 

b.  The  appositive  generally  agrees  in  Gender  and  Number 
when  it  can  :  as, 

sequuntur  naturam,  optimam  ducem  (Lael.  19),  they  follow  nature, 

the  best  guide. 
omnium  doctrinarum  inventrices  Athenas    (De   Or.   i.   4),  Athens, 

discoverer  of  all  learning. 

c.  A  common  noun  in  apposition  with  a  Locative  is  put  in  the 
Ablative,  with  or  without  the  preposition  in  :  as, 

Antiochiae,  celebri  quondam  urbe  (Arch.  3),  at  Antioch,  once  a  famous 

city. 
Albae  constiterunt  in  urbe  munita  (Phil.  iv.  2),  they  halted  at  Alba, 

a  fortified  town. 


1 


124         .  Syntax:  Adjectives. 

d.  The  genitive  can  be  used  in  apposition  with  PossKssivrs, 
taking  the  gender  and  number  of  the  implied  noun  or  pronoun 
(197.  a)  :  as, 

in  nostro  omnium  fletu  (Mil.  34),  amid  the  tears  of  us  all. 

ex  Anniana  Milonis  domo  ( Att.  iv.  3),  out  of  Annius  Milo^s  house. 

Note.  —  The  proper  Appositive  is  sometimes  put  in  the  Gen- 
itive (see  214.  O- 

Predicate  Agreement. 

185.  When  the  descriptive  noun  is  used  to  form  a 
predicate,  it  is  called  a  Predicate  Nominative  (or 
other  case,  as  the  construction  may  require) :   as, 

consules  creantur  Caesar  et  Servilius  (B.  C.  iii.  i),  Ccesar  and  Servilius 
are  made  consuls.  [Here  consules  is  predicate-nominative  after 
creantur.] 

Ancum  Marcium  regem  populus  creavit  (Liv.  i.  32),  the  people  made 
Ancus  Marcius  king.     [Here  regem  is  the  predicate  accusative.) 

ADJECTIVES. 
Rule  of  Agnr^ement. 

186.  Adjectives,  Adjective  Pronouns,  and  Participles 
agree  with  their  nouns  in  gender,  number,  and  case. 

vir  fortis,  a  brave  man, 

urbium  magnarum,  of  great  cities. 

cum  ducentlB  militibuB,  with  200  soldiers. 

a.  An  Attributive  adjective  simply  qualifies  the  noun  without 
the  intervention  of  a  verb :  as, 

bonus  imperator,  a  good  commander. 

b.  A  Predicate  adjective  is  connected  with  its  noun  by  esse,  or 
a  verb  of  similar  meaning,  expressed  or  implied  :  as, 

stellae  lucidae  erant,  the  stars  were  bright. 

c.  A  predicate  adjective  may  also  be  used  in  Apposition  like  a 
noun :  as, 

Scipionem  vivum  vidi,  I  saw  Scipio  in  his  life-time. 

d.  With  two  or  more  nouns  the  adjective  is  plural ;  also,  rarely, 
when  they  are  connected  by  cum  :  as, 

Nisus  et  Euryalus  primi  (^^n.  v.  294),  Nisus  and  Euryalus  first. 
Juba  cum  Labieno  capti  (B.  Afr.  52),  Juba  and  Labienus  were  taken. 


Agreement  of  Adjectives.  125 

187.  When  nouns  are  of  different  genders,  an  attrib- 
utive adjective  agrees  with  the  nearest :  as, 

multae  operae  ac  laboris,  of  much  trouble  and  toil. 
vita  moresque  mei,  my  life  and  character. 

si  res,  si  vir,  si  tempus  ullum  dignum  fuit  (Mil.  7),  if  any  things  if  any 
Tnan,  if  any  time  luas  ft. 

a.  A  predicate  adjective  may  agree  with  the  nearest  of  two 
nouns  if  the  two  form  one  connected  idea :  as, 

factus  est  strepitus  et  admurmuratio  (Verr.  i.  15),  a  noise  of  assent 
was  made. 

N.  B.  This  is  only  when  the  Copula  agrees  with  the  nearest 
subject. 

b.  Generally,  a  predicate  adjective  will  be  masculine,  if  nouns 
of  different  genders  mean  living  beings  j  neuter,  if  things  without 
life :  as, 

uxor  deinde  ac  liberi  amplexi  (Liv.  ii.  40),  then  his  wife  and  children 
embraced  htm. 

labor  (m.)  voluptasque  (f.),  societate  quadam  inter  se  naturali  sunt 
juncta  (n.)  (id.  v.  4),  labor  and  delight  are  bound  together  by  a  certain 
natural  alliance. 

c.  Abstract  nouns  of  the  same  gender  may  have  a  neuter  ad- 
jective (see  189.  ^.)  :  as, 

stultitia  et  temeritas  et  injustitia  .  .  .  sunt  fugienda  (Fin.  iii.  11), 
folly,  rashness,  and  injustice  are  [things]  to  be  shunned. 

d.  A  masculine  or  feminine  adjective  may  conform  (by  Synesis) 
to  the  gender  or  number  of  the  persons  implied  in  a  noun  of 
different  gender  or  number  :  as, 

pars  certare  parati  (^n.  v.  108),  a  part  ready  to  contend. 

duo  millia  relicti  (Liv.  xxxvii.  39),  two  thousand  were  left. 

coloniae  aliquot  deductae,   Prisci   Latini  appellati   (id.  i.  3),  several 

colonies  were  led  out  [of  men  ]  called  Old  Latins. 
magna  pars  raptae  (id.  i.  9),  a  large  part  [of  the  women]  were  seized. 
omnis  aetas  currere  obvii  (id.  xxvii.  51),  [people  of]  every  age  ran  to 
meet  them. 

e.  A  superlative  in  the  predicate  sometimes  takes  the  gender  of 
a  partitive  genitive  :  as, 

velocissimum  animalium  delphinus  est  (Plin.),  the  dolphin  is  the 
swiftest  of  creatures. 


126  Syntax:  Adjectives, 

Special  Uses. 

188.  Adjectives  are  often  used  as  Nouns,  the  mascu- 
line usually  to  denote  men  or  people  in  general  of  that 
kind,  the  feminine  women,  and  the  neuter  thifigs :  as, 

omnes,  all  men  {everybody),      omnia,  all  things  (everything). 

majores,  ancestors.  minores,  descendants. 

Romaui,  Romans.  barbari,  barbarians. 

liberta,  a  freedwofnan.  Sabinae,  the  Sabine  wives. 

sapiens,  a  sage  {philosopher),  amicus,  a  friend. 

Remark.  —  The  singular  of  adjectives  in  this  use  is  more  rare, 
except  with  a  few  words  which  have  become  practically  nouns,  such  as 
afftnisy  amicus^  avdrus,  familidrisy  propinquus,  sapiens^  vicimts,  and  neuters 
like  those  in  189.  a  ;  the  plural  is  very  frequent,  and  may  be  used  of  any 
adjective  or  participle,  to  denote  those  in  general  described  by  it. 

a.  Certain  adjectives  have  become  practically  nouns,  and  are 
often  modified  by  other  adjectives  :  as, 

meus  aequalis,  a  man  of  my  own  age. 

familiaris  tuus,  an  intimate  friend  0/ yours  (comp.  218.  d). 

b.  When  any  ambiguity  would  arise  from  the  use  of  the  adjec- 
tive alone,  a  noun  must  be  added  :  as, 

boni,  the  good ;  omnia,  everything  [alt  things)  ;  but  — 
vir  bonus,  a  good  man  (cf.  Remark  above), 
potentia  omnium  rerum,  power  over  everything. 

c.  Many  adjectives  are  used  alone  in  the  singular,  with  the 
added  meaning  of  some  noun  which  is  understood  from  constant 
association  :  as, 

Africus  [ventus],  the  south-west  wind. 
vitulina  [caro],  veal  [calf  s  flesh). 
fera  [bestia],  a  wild  beast. 
patria  [terra],  the  fatherland. 
hiberna  [castra],  winter  quarters. 
triremis  (navis],  a  three-banked  galley. 
argcntarius  [faber],  a  silversmith. 
regia  [domus,]  the  palace. 
Note.  —  These  are  specific  in  meaning,  not  generic  like  those  above. 

d.  A  noun  is  sometimes  used  as  an  adjective,  and  may  be  quali- 
fied by  an  adverb :  as, 

victor  exercitus,  the  victorious  army. 
servum  pecus,  a  servile  troop. 
admodum  puer,  quite  a  boy  [childish). 
magis  vir,  more  of  a  man. 


Adjectives:    Special  Uses.  127 

189.  A  Neuter  adjective  has  the  following  special 
uses  :  — 

a.  The  neuter  singular  may  denote  either  a  single  object  or  an 
abstract  quahty  :    as, 

rapto  vivere,  to  live  by  plunder. 

in  arido,  on  dry  ground. 

honestum,  an  honorable  act,  or  virtue  (as  a  quality). 

opus  est  maturato,  there  is  need  of  haste  (cf.  impersonal  passives). 

b.  The  noMt^x  plural  is  used  to  signify  objects  in  general  having 
the  quality  denoted,  and  hence  the  abstract  idea :  as, 

honesta,  honorable  deeds  (in  general). 

praeterita,  the  past. 

omnes'fortia  laudant,  all  men  praise  bravery. 

c.  A  neuter  Appositive  or  Predicate  may  be  used  with  a  noun 

of  different  gender  :  as, 

turpitudo  pejus  est  quam  dolor  (Tusc.  ii.  13),  disgrace  is  [a  thing] 
worse  than  pain. 

d.  A  neuter  adjective  is  used  in  agreement  with  an  Infinitive 
or  a  Substantive  Clause  :  as, 

aliud  est  errare  Caesarem  nolle,  aliud  nolle  misereri  (Lig.  5),  it  is  one 
thing  to  be  unwilling  that  Ccesar  should  err,  another  to  be  unwilling 
that  he  should  pity. 

Possessives. 

190.  Possessive  and  other  derivative  adjectives  are 
often  used  in  Latin  where  English  has  a  possessive  case, 
or  noun  with  a  preposition  (compare  184.  d;  197.  a) :  as, 

pugna  Cannensis,  the  fight  at  Cannce. 

C.  Blossius  Cumanus,  Caius  Blossius  of  Cumcs. 

aliena  domus,  ajiother  Tumi's  house. 

Caesarina  celeritas  (Att.  xvi.  10),  a  despatch  like  CcEsar's. 

a.  Possessive  adjectives  are  often  used  substantively  to  denote 
some  special  class  or  relation  (see  197.  d')  :  as, 

nostri,  our  countrymen  or  men  of  our  party. 
Sullani,  the  veterans  of  Sy lid's  army. 
Pompeiani,  the  partisans  of  Pompey. 

b.  A  possessive  adjective  is  sometimes  apparently  used  for  the 
Objective  Genitive  by  a  different  conception  of  the  idea  :  as, 

metus  hostilis  (Jug.  ^i),fear  of  the  enemy. 

feminea  in  poena  ( Virg.),  in  the  punishment  of  a  woman. 

periculo  invidiae  meae  (Cat.  ii.  2),  at  the  risk  of  odium  against  me. 


128  Syntax:  Adjectives ;   Pronouns, 

191.  An  adjective,  with  the  subject  or  object,  is  often 
used  to  qualify  the  act,  having  the  force  of  an  adverb  :  as, 

primus  venit,  he  canu  first  {was  the  first  to  come). 
nullus  dubito,  /  no  way  doubt. 
laeti  audiere,  they  were  glad  to  hear. 

erat  Romae  frequens  (Rose.  Am.  6),  he  was  often  at  Rome. 
serus  in  caelum  redeas  (Hor.  Od.  i.  2),  may'st  thou  return  late  to 
heaven. 

192.  When  two  qualities  of  an  object  are  compared, 
both  adjectives  (or  adverbs)  are  in  the  comparative :  as, 

longior  quam  latior  acies  erat  (Liv.  xxvii.  48),  the  line  was  longer  than 
it  was  broad  (or,  rather  long  than  broad ). 

a.  Where  magis  is  used,  both  adjectives  are  in  the  positive  :  as, 
clari,  magis  quam  honesti  (Jug.  8),  more  renowned  than  honorable. 

b.  A  comparative  with  a  positive,  or  even  two  positives,  may 
be  connected  by  quam  (a  rare  and  less  elegant  use)  :  as, 

vehementius  quam  caute  (Agric.  4),  with  more  fury  than  good  heed. 
Claris  majoribus  quam  vetustis  (Ann.  iv.  61),  0/  a  family  more  famous 
than  old. 

193.  Superlatives  (and  more  rarely  comparatives)  de- 
noting order  and  succession  —  also  medms,  ceterus,  reli- 
quus —  usually  designate  not  what  object,  but  what  part 
of  it,  is  meant:  as, 

summus  mons,  the  top  of  the  hill. 

in  ultima  platea,  at  the  end  of  the  place. 

prior  actio,  the  earlier  part  of  an  action. 

reliqui  captivi,  the  rest  of  the  prisotters. 

in  colle  medio  (B.  G.  i.  24),  on  the  middle  of  the  hill. 

inter  ceteram  planitiem  (Jug.  92),  in  a  region  elsewhere  level. 

Note.  —  A  similar  use  is  found  in  such  expressions  as  sera 
{multa)  node.     But  also,  medium  viae,  multum  diet. 

PRONOUNS. 

Note.  —  Pronouns  indicate  some  person   or   thing  without  either 

naming  or  describing.    They  are  derived  from  a  distinct  class  of  roots, 

which  seem  to  have  denoted  only  ideas  of  place  and  direction,  and  from 

which  nouns  or  verbs  can  very  rarely  be  formed.     Pronouns  may  there- 


Pronouns  :  Personal  and  Demonstrative.        1 29 

fore  stand  for  Nouns  when  the  object,  being  present  to  the  senses  or 
imagination,  needs  only  to  be  pointed  out.  Some  indicate  the  object  in 
itself,  without  reference  to  its  class,  and  have  no  distinction  of  gender. 
These  are  Personal  Pronouns.  They  therefore  stand  syntactically 
for  Nouns,  and  have  the  same  construction  as  nouns.  Some  indicate  a 
particular  object  of  a  class,  and  take  the  gender  of  the  individuals  of 
that  class.  These  are  called  Adjective  Pronouns.  They  therefore 
stand  for  Adjectives,  and  have  the  same  construction  as  adjectives. 
Some  are  used  in  both  ways;  and,  though  called  adjective  pronouns, 
may  also  be  treated  as  personal,  taking,  however,  the  gender  of  the 
object  indicated. 

Personal. 

194.  The  Personal  Pronouns  have,  in  general,  the 
same  construction  as  nouns. 

a.  The  personal  pronouns  are  not  expressed  in  Latin,  except 
for  distinction  or  emphasis  (compare  346.  d')  :  as. 

te  voco,  I  call  you  ;  but  — 

quis  me  vocat  ?   ego  te  voco,  who  calls  me  ?  it  is  I. 

b.  The  personal  pronouns  have  two  forms  for  the  genitive  plural, 
that  in  um  being  used  partitively,  and  that  in  i  oftenest  objec- 
tively:  as, 

major  nostrum,  the  elder  of  us, 

habetis  ducem  memorem  vestri,  oblitum  sui  (Cat.  iv.  g),  you  have  a 

leader  who  thinks  of  you  and  forgets  himself 
pars  nostrum,  a  part  of  us. 
nostri  melior  pars  animus  est  (Sen.),  the  better  part  of  us  is  the  soul. 

Note.  —  "  One  of  themselves  "  is  expressed  by  unus  ex  suis  or  ipsis 
(rarely  ex  se)  or  suorum.  The  genitives  nostrum^  vestrum,  are  rarely 
used  objectively  :  cupidus  vestrum  (Verr.  iii.  96),  custos  vestrum  (Cat. 
Hi.  12). 

Demonstrative. 

195.  The  Demonstrative  Pronouns^  are  treated  as 
adjectives  in  agreement,  but  are  often  used  as  personal 
pronouns.  This  use  is  regular  in  the  oblique  cases, 
especially  of  is :   as, 

Caesar  et  exercitus  ejus,  Ccesar  and  his  army. 
vidi  eum  rogavique,  /  saw  him  and  asked  [him]. 

*  For  the  special  significations  of  these  demonstratives,  see  page  53. 


130  Syntax:  Pronouns. 

a.  The  demonstratives  are  used  as  pronouns  of  reference^ 
to  indicate  a  noun  or  phrase  with  emphasis,  like  the  English 
THAT :    as, 

nullam  virtus  aliam  mercedem  desiderat  praeter  hanc  laudis  (Arch.  1 1 ), 
Virtue  wants  no  other  reward  except  that  [just  spoken  of]  of  praise. 

b.  The  demonstrative  as  a  pronoun  of  reference  is  commonly 
omitted,  or  some  other  construction  is  preferred  :  as, 

memoriae  artem  quam  oblivionis  male,  I  prefer  the  art  of  memory  to 

that  of  forgetfulness. 
Caesaris  exercitus  Pompeianos  ad  Pharsalum  vicit,  the  army  of  Ccesar 

defeated  that  of  Pompey  at  Pharsalus. 

c.  When  a  quality  is  ascribed  with  emphasis  to  an  object 
already  named,  is  or  idem  (often  with  the  concessive  quidem)  is 
used  to  indicate  that  object :  as, 

vincula,  eaque  sempiterna  (Cat.  iv.4),  imprisonment^  and  that  perpetual. 

d.  An  adjective  pronoun  usually  agrees  with  a  word  in  apposi- 
tion or  2l  predicate  rather  than  with  its  antecedent :  as, 

rerum  caput  hoc  erat,  hie  fons  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  17),  this  was  the  head  of 

things^  this  the  source. 
earn  sapientiam  interpretantur  quam  adhuc  mortalis  nemo  est  con- 

secutus  [for  id  .  .  .  quod]  (Lael.  5),  they  explain  that  [thing]  to  be 

wisdom  which  no  man  ever  yet  attained. 

e.  Idem  is  often  equivalent  to  an  adverb  or  adverbial  phrase 
{also^  too^  yety  at  the  same  time)  :  as, 

oratio  splendida  et  grandis  at  eadem  in  primis  faceta  (Brut.  79), 

an  oration,  brilliant,  able,  and  very  witty  too. 
cum  [haec]  dicat,  negat   idem  in  Deo  esse  gratiam  (N.  D.  i.  43), 

when  he  says  this,  he  denies  also  that  there  is  mercy  with  God. 

f.  Ipse,  self  (intensive),  is  used  with  any  of  the  other  pronouns 
or  a  noun  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  :  as, 

turpe  mihi  ipsi  videbatur  (Cic),  ei>en  to  me  it  seems  disgraceful. 
id  ipsum,  that  very  thing. 
quod  ipsum,  which  of  itself  alone. 
in  eum  ipsum  locum,  to  that  very  place. 

Remark.  —  The  emphasis  of  ipse  is  often  expressed  in  English  by 
fust,  very,  mere,  &c.  (see  above  examples). 

g.  Ipse  is  used  alone  as  an  emphatic  pronoun  of  the  third 
person :  as, 

mihi  satis,  ipsis  non  satis  (Cic),  enough  for  me,  not  for  themselves. 
omnes  boni  quantum  in  ipsis  fuit  (id.),  all  good  men  so  far  as  was  in 
their  power. 


Pronouns :    Demonstrative  and  Reflexive.       131 

beatos  illos  qui  cum  adesse  ipsis  non  Hcebat  aderant  tamen  (id.),  happy 
they  who,  when  it  was  not  allowed  them  to  attend  in  person^  still 
were  there. 

Di  capiti  ipsius  generique  reservent  {M..  vii.  484),  may  the  gods  hold  in 
reserve  [such  a  fate]  to  fall  on  his  awn  and  his  son-in-lav/s  head. 

h.   Ipse  is  used  alone  to  emphasize  an  omitted  subject  of  the 

first  or  second  person  :  as, 

vobiscum  ipsi  recordamini  (Cic),  remember  in  your  ownminds. 

i.  Ipse  sometimes  refers  to  a  principal  personage,  to  distinguish 
him  from  subordinate  persons  :  as, 

ipse  dixit  (cf.  ahT))%  €<pa),  he  {the  Master)  said  it. 

Nomentanus  erat  super  ipsum  (Hor.),  Nomentanus  was  above  [the 
host]  himself  [zX.  table). 

k.  Ipse  is  often  (is  rarely)  used  instead  of  an  indirect  reflexive, 
to  avoid  ambiguity  ;  and  in  later  writers  is  sometimes  found  instead 
of  the  direct  reflexive  :  as, 

cur  de  sua  virtute  aut  de  ipsius  diligentia  desperarent?  (B.  G.  i.  40), 

why  (he  asked)  should  they  despair  of  their   own   courage  or   his 

diligence  ? 
qui  mortuo  Dario  ipsas  tueretur  reperisse  (Q.  C.  x.  5),  we  found  one 

(said  she)  to  protect  us  after  the  death  of  Darius. 
omnia  aut  ipsos  aut  hostes  populates  (id.  iii.  5),  either  they  or  the 

enemy  had  laid  all  waste. 

I.  Ipse  is  usually  put  in  the  case  of  the  Subject,  even  where 
the  real  emphasis  appears  to  be  or  even  is  on  a  reflexive  in  the 
Predicate  :  as, 

me  ipse  consolor,  /  console  myself  (not  me  ipsum,  as  the  English  would 
lead  us  to  expect). 

Reflexive. 

196.  The  Reflexive  Pronoun  (se),^  and  usually  its  cor- 
responding possessive  (suus),  is  used  in  some  part  of 
the  Predicate,^  referring  to  the  Subject  of  the  sentence 
or  clause :  as, 

virtus  se  novit,  virtue  knows  itself. 

Brutus  amioum  suum  occidit,  Brutus  killed  his  friend. 

promisit  se  venturum  [tsst],^  he  promised  to  come. 

^  This  seems  to  have  been  originally  the  personal  pronoun  of  the  third  person 
(Skr.  SVA  and  Gr.  o-i^eis),  but  came  by  use  to  be  purely  reflexive. 

*  This  is  very  often  a  form  of  Indirect  Discourse.  In  this  case,  the  Reflexive 
in  a  subordinate  clause  may  often  be  ambiguous,  though  less  frequently  in  Latia 


132  Syntax:  Pronouns. 

a.  In  subordinate  clauses,  the  reflexive  is  commonly  used  in 
reference  to  the  subject  of  the  main  clause  :    as, 

Iccius  nuntium  ad  eum  mittit,  nisi  subsidium  sibi  submittatur,  etc. 
(B.  G.  ii.  6),  setids  him  a  message  that  unless  relief  be  furnished  him 
(Iccius),  &c. 

quern  salutem  suam  crediturum  sibi  (Q.  C.  iii.  8)  ?  who  would  trust 
his  safety  to  him  [Darius]  ? 

b.  The  Reflexive  sometimes  refers  to  a  main  clause  which  has 
been  grammatically  suppressed :  as, 

libros  quos  pater  suus  reliquisset  (Cic),  books  which  [he  said]  his 
father  had  left. 

c.  The  Reflexive  may  refer  to  any  noun  in  the  same  clause,  on 
which  emphasis  is  thrown,  so  that  it  becomes  in  a  manner  the 
subject  of  discourse :  as, 

Socratem  civcs  sui  interfecerunt,  Socrates  was  put  to  death  by  his  ovm 
fellow-citizens,  [Here  the  emphasis  is  preserved  in  English  by 
the  change  of  voice.] 

d.  The  Reflexive  may  follow  a  verbal  noun  or  adjective  :  as, 
conservatio  sui,  self-preservation. 

impotens  sui  (Q.  C),  tuithout  self-control, 

homines  cum  sui  similibus  servis  (Phil.  i.  2),  men  with  slaves  like 
themselves. 

e.  The  Reflexive  refers  to  the  subject  implied  in  an  infinitive  or 
verbal  abstract  used  indefinitely  :  as, 

bellum  est  sua  vitia  nosse  (Cic),  //  is  a  fne  thing  to  know  on/ s  own 
faults. 

f.  Inter  se  is  regularly  used  to  express  reciprocal  action ;  as, 

cohaerentia  inter  se,  things  consistent  with  each  other. 

Possessive. 

197.  The  Possessive  Pronouns  are  derivative  adjec- 
tives, which  take  the  gender,  number,  and  case  of  the 
noun  they  are  used  with,  not  of  the  possessor :  as, 

Caesar  lucorem  suam  repudiavit,  Casar  put  away  his  wife. 

than  in  English.  Thus  in  the  sentence  "A  replied  to  B  that  he  thought  C  (his 
brother)  more  unjust  to  himself  than  to  his  own  friend,"  the  syntax  is  perfectly 
simple  and  clear,  but  the  meaning  not ;  he  and  his  may  refer  to  A,  to  B,  or  to 
some  third  person ;  himself  and  his  own  to  either  A,  B,  or  C.  A  part  of  the  am- 
biguity would  be  removed,  in  Latin,  by  using  se  or  eum^  fj**^^  suus^  or  ipsius ; 
but  a  part  would  necessarily  remain,  and  could  not  be  removed  by  any  ruU  of 
syntax^  but  only  by  tlie  exercise  of  common  sense  in  reference  to  the  context. 


Pronouns  :  Possessive  and  Relative.  133 

a.  Possessives  are  regularly  used  for  the  genitive  of  possession, 
and  more  rarely  for  the  objective  genitive  (compare  190)  :  as, 

domus  mea,  my  house. 

periculo  invidiae  meae  (Cat.  ii.  2),  at  risk  of  odium  against  me. 

b.  The  possessives  have  often  the  acquired  meaning  of  favora- 
ble ox  propitious  '  towards  the  subject  indicated  :  as, 

tempore  tuo  pugnasti  ?   did  you  fight  at  a  fit  time  ? 
ignoranti  quern  portum  petat  nullus  suus  ventus  est  (Sen.  Ep.  70),  to 
him  who  knows  not  what  port  he  is  bound  to,  no  wind  is  fair. 

c.  The  possessives  are  regularly  omitted  (like  other  pronouns) 
when  they  are  plainly  implied  in  the  context :  as, 

amicum  gratulatur,  he  greets  his  friend  [amicum  suum  would  be  dis- 
tinctive ;  suum  amicum  would  be  emphatically  "  his  own  "  friend]. 

d.  Possessives  are  often  used   substantively,  implying  some 
special  relation:*  as, 

nostri,  our  countrymen,  or  men  of  our  party. 

suos  continebat  (B.  C.  i.  15),  he  held  his  men  in  check. 

e.  A  possessive  in  any  case  may  have  a  genitive  in  apposition  : 
as, 

mea  solius  causa,  y^r  my  sake  only. 

nostra  omnium  patria,  the  country  of  us  all. 

suum  ipsius  regnum,  his  own  kingdom. 

Relative- 

Note. — A  Relative  Pronoun  is  properly  an  Adjective,  in  agreement 
with,  some  word  either  expressed  in  its  own  clause,  or  (often)  in  the 
antecedent  (demonstrative)  clause.  The  full  construction  would  re- 
quire the  antecedent  to  be  expressed  in  both  clauses,  with  more  com- 
monly a  corresponding  demonstrative  to  which  the  relative  refers :  as, 
erant  omnino  duo  itinera  quibus  itineribus  domo  exire  possent  (B.  G. 
i.  6).  But  one  of  these  nouns  is  most  commonly  omitted.  This  word 
is,  in  Latin,  very  frequently  found  (rarely  in  English)  in  the  relative 
clause,  —  sometimes  in  that  alone.  Hence  relatives  serve  two  uses  : 
I.  as  Nouns  in  their  own  clause,  2.  as  Connectives  ;  and  thus  are  often 
equivalent  to  a  demonstrative  and  conjunction  combined.  The  connective 
force  is  not  original,  but  is  developed  from  an  interrogative  or  indefinite 
meaning  specialized  by  use.      The  clauses  were  originally  co-ordinate. 

1  This  use  is  not  strictly  idiomatic,  but  is  a  natural  development  of  meaning, 
and  may  often  be  rendered  literally. 

2  There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  an  ellipsis  here ;  but  th«  adjective  b«comes  a 
noun  like  other  adjectives  (see  i88). 


134  Syntax:  Pronouns. 

Thus,  Qui  quietus  animo  est,  is  est  sapiens :  "  Who  (some  one)  is  undis- 
turbed in  soul  ?  That  [man]  is  a  sage."  This  form  of  relative  has  in 
Latin  supplanted  other  forms  which  were  demonstrative  in  their  origin, 
as  in  Liber  quern  dedisti :  "  The  book  — you  gave  it." 

198.  A  Relative  agrees  with  its  Antecedent  in  Gen- 
der and  Number;  but  its  Case  depends  on  the  con- 
struction of  the  clause  in  which  it  stands :  as, 

puer  qui  venit,  the  boy  who  came. 
liber  quem  legis,  the  book  you  are  reading. 
via  qua  ambulat,  the  path  he  walks  in. 
This    rule   applies   to  all   relative  words   so  far  as   they  are 
variable  in  form:    as,  jualis,  quantus,  quicumque. 

199.  A  relative  generally  agrees  in  gender  with  a  noun 
(appositive  or  predicate)  in  its  own  clause,  rather  than 
with  an  antecedent  of  different  gender:  as, 

mare  etiam  quem  Neptunum  esse  dicebas  (N.  D.  iii.  20),  theseoy  too, 
which  you  said  was  Neptune. 

a.  A  relative  may  (rarely)  by  attraction  agree  with  its  ante- 
cedent in  Case :  as, 

si  aliquid  agas  eorum  quorum  consuesti  (Fam.  v.  14),  if  you  should  do 
something  of  what  you  are  used  to. 

b.  A  relative  may  agree  in  gender  and  number  with  an  impliea 
antecedent:  as, 

quartum  genus  .  .  .  qui  aere  vetere  alieno  vacillant  (Cat.  ii.  10),  a 

fourth  class,  that  are  staggering  under  old  debts. 
unus  ex  eo  numero  qui  parati  erant  (Jug.  35),  one  of  the  number  [of 

those]  who  were  ready. 
conjuravere  pauci  .  .  .  de  qua  [conjuratione]  dicam  (Sail.  C.  18),  a  few 

have  conspired .  .  .  of  which  [conspiracy]  /  will  speak. 

200.  The  antecedent  noun  sometimes  appears  in  both 
clauses ;  usually  only  in  the  one  that  precedes ;  some- 
times it  is  wholly  omitted.     Thus  — 

a.  The  noun  may  be  repeated  in  the  relative  clause  :  as, 

loci  natura  erat  haec  quem  locum  nostri  delegerant  (B.  G.  ii.  18),  the 
nature  of  the  ground  which  our  men  had  chosen  was  this. 

b.  The  noun  may  appear  only  in  the  relative  clause  :  as, 

quas  res  in  consulatu  nostro  gessimus  attigit  hie  versibus  (Arch.  11), 
he  has  touched  in  verse  the  things  which  we  did  in  our  consulship. 

urbem  quam  statuo  vestra  est  (JEsi.  i.  ^7^),  yours  is  the  city  which  J 
am  founding. 


Pronotms :  Relative.  135 

Note.  —  In  the  latter  case,  a  demonstrative  (is,  ille  or  hie) 
usually  stands  in  the  antecedent  clause  :  ^  as, 

quae  pars  civitatis  calamitatem  populo  Romano  intulerat,  ea  princeps 
poenas  persolvit  (B.  G.  i.  12),  thai  pari  of  the  State  which  had 
brought  disaster  on  the  Roman  people  was  the  first  io  pay  the 
penalty. 

c.  The  antecedent  noun  may  be  entirely  omitted,  especially  an 
indefirjite  one  :  as, 

qui  decimae   legionis  aquilam  ferebat  (B.  G.  iv.  25),  [the  man]  who 

bore  the  eagle  of  the  tenth  legion. 
qui  cognoscerent  misit  (id.  i.  21),  he  sent  [men]  to  reconnoitre. 

d.  A  predicate  adjective  (especially  a  superlative)  agreeing  with 

the  antecedent  may  stand  in  the  relative  clause  :  as, 

vasa  ea  quae  pulcherrima  apud  cum  viderat  (Verr.  iv.  27),  those  most 
beautiful  vessels  which  ,he  had  seen  at  his  house  (nearly  equal  to  the 
vessels  of  which  he  had  seen  some  very  beautiful  ones). 

e.  The  phrase  id  quod  or  quae  res  is  used  (instead  of  quod 

alone)  to  relate  to  an  idea  or  group  of  words  : 

[obtrectatum  est]  Gabinio  dicam  anne  Pompeio  ?  an  utrique  —  id 
quod  est  verius  ?  (Manil.  19),  an  affront  is  offered  shall  I  say  to 
Gabinius  or  Pompey  ?  or  —  which  is  truer  —  to  both  ? 

201.  In  the  use  of  relatives,  the  following  points  are 
to  be  observed  :  — 

a.  The  relative  is  never  omitted  in  Latin,  as  it  often  is  in 
English :    as, 

liber  quem  mihi  dedisti,  the  book  you  gave  me. 

is  sum  qui  semper  fui,  /  am  the  same  man  I  always  was. 

eo  in  loco  est  de  quo  tibi  locutus  sum,  he  is  in  the  place  I  told  you  of. 

b.  A  relative  clause  in  Latin  often  takes  the  place  of  other  con- 
structions in  English,  particularly  of  a  participle,  appositive,  or 
noun  of  agency  :  as, 

leges  quae  nunc  sunt,  the  existing  laws. 

Caesar  qui  Galliam  vicit,  Ccesar  the  conqueror  of  Gaul. 

justa  gloria  quae  est  fructus  virtutis,  true  glory  the  fruit  of  virtue. 

c.  In  formal  or  emphatic  discourse,  the  relative  clause  usually 
comes  first,  often  containing  the  antecedent  noun :  as, 

quae  mala  cum  multis  patimur  ea  nobis  leviora  videntur,  the  evils 
we  suffer  [in  common]  with  fnany,seem  to  us  lighter. 

^  In  a  sentence  of  this  class,  the  relative  clause  in  Latin  usually  stands  first  ■, 
but,  in  translating,  the  noun  should  generally  (except  with  an  indefinite  relative) 
be  transferred  in  its  proper  case  to  the  antecedent  clause,  as  in  the  example  above 
quoted. 


136  Syntax:  Pronotms. 

d.  When  the  antecedent  noun  is  in  apposition  with  tfie  main 
elause,  or  some  word  of  it,  it  is  put  in  the  relative  clause  :  as, 

firmi  amici,  cujus  generis  est  magna  penuria,  steadfast  friends^  a  class 
of  which  there  is  great  lack. 

e.  A  relative  may  stand  (even  with  another,  or  an  interroga- 
tive) at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  or  clause,  where  in  English  a 
demonstrative  must  be  used :  as, 

quae  cum  ita  sint,  and  since  these  things  are  so. 

quorum  quod  simile  factum  ?  (Cat.  iv.  8),  what  deed  of  theirs  like  this? 

f.  The  relative  Adverb  is  regularly  used  in  referring  to  a  Loca- 
tive :  as, 

mortuus  Cumis  quo  se  contulerat  (Liv.  ii.  21),  having  died  at  Cumce, 
whither  he  had  retired  [here  in  quam  urbem  might  be  used,  but  not 
in  qtias\. 

g.  The  relative  words  qui,  quails,  quantus,  &c.,  are  often  ren- 
dered simply  by  as  '  in  English  :  as, 

idem  quod  semper,  the  same  as  always. 

talis  dux  qualem  Hannibalem  novimus,  such  a  chief  as  we  know  Han- 
nibal  [to  have  been]. 

h.  The  general  construction  of  relatives  is  found  in  clauses 
introduced  by  relative  or  temporal  adverbs  :  as,  ubi,  quo,  unde, 
cum,  quare. 

[For  the  use  of  the  Relative  in  idiomatic  clauses  of  Result 
{est  quiy  dignus  qui,  quant  qui,  etc.),  see  320.  tf,  Cy  f."] 

[For  the  use  of  Interrogatives,  see  210]. 

Indefinite- 

202.  The  Indefinite  Pronouns  are  used  to  indicate  that 
some  person  or  thing  is  meant,  without  indicating  what 
one. 

N.  B.  For  the  significations  of  the  compounds  of  qui  and  qui», 
see  105  (pp.  55,  56). 

a.  Of  the  particular  indefinites  quia,  qulspiam,  nesoio  quia, 
aliquia,  quldam  (meaning  some  or  any),  quia  is  least  definite, 
and  quldam  the  most :  as, 

dixerit  quis  (quispiam),  some  om  may  say. 

»  Compare  106.  ^,  The  wprcj  as  in  this  use  15  strictly  a  rriative,  though  in- 
variable in  form. 


Pronouns:  Indefinite.  137 

aliqui  philosophi  ita  putant,  some  philosophers  think  so  \quidam  would 

mean  certain  particular  persons  defined  to  the    speaker's    mind 

though  not  named], 
habitant  hie  quaedam  mulieres  pauperculae,  some  poor  women  live 

here  [i.e.  some  women  he  knows  of ;    some  women  or  other  would 

be  aliquae  or  nescio  quae] . 

d.  In  3,  particular  negative,  aliquis  is  regularly  used,  when  in 
a  general  negative  quisquam  or  uUus  would  be  required  :  as, 
sine  aliquo  metu,  [you  cannot  do  this]  without  some  fear. 
sine  ullo  metu,  [you  may  do  this]  without  any  fear. 

c.  Of  the  general  indefinites,  quivis  or  quilibet  {any you  will) 
is  used  chiefly  in  affirmative,  quisquam  and  uUus  {any  at  all) 
in  negative,  interrogative,  or  conditional  clauses  :  as, 

quidlibet  modo  aliquid  (Cic),  any  thing  you  will,  provided  it  be  some- 
thing. 

cuivis  potest  accidere  quod  cuiquam  potest,  what  can  happen  to  any 
[one]  man  can  happen  to  any  man  [whatever]. 

cur  cuiquam  misi  prius,  why  did  I  send  to  any  body  before  [you]  "i 

minus  habeo  virium  quam  vestrum  utervis,  /  hceve  less  strength  than 
either  of  you  (for  the  form  utervis,  see  83). 

non  cuivis  homini  contingit  adire  Corinthum,  it  is  not  every  man's 
luck  to  go  to  Corinth  [non  cuiquam,  not  any  man's]. 

Note.  —  The  use  of  these  indefinites  is  very  various,  and  must  be 
learned  from  the  Lexicon  or  from  practice.  The  choice  among  them 
often  depends  merely  on  the  point  of  view  of  the  speaker,  and  they  are 
often  practically  interchangeable.  The  differences  are  (with  few  excep- 
tions) those  of  logic,  not  of  syntax. 

d.  The  Distributive  quisque  {every),  uterque  (each),  or  unus 
quisque  {every  single  one),  used  in  general  assertions,  is  equivalent 
to  a  plural,  and  sometimes  has  a  plural  verb  :  as, 

bonus  liber  melior  est  quisque  quo  major,  the  larger  a  good  book  is, 

the  better. 
ambo  exercitus  suas   quisque   abeunt  domos,   both  armies  go  away 

every  man  to  his  home. 
uterque  utrique  erat  exercitus  in  Gonspectu,  each  army  was  in  sight 

of  the  other. 

e.  Quisque  is  regularly  placed  in  a  dependent  clause  if  there  is 
one :  as, 

quo  quisque  est  sollertior,  hoc  docet  iracundius  (Rose.  Com.  ii.),  the 

keener-witted  a  man  is,  the  more  impatiently  he  teaches. 

f.  Nemo  is  often  used  with  a  noun  in  apposition  ;  often  also  ag 
a  pronoun:  as,  vir  nemo  bonus  (Leg.  ii.  16). 


138  Syntax:    Verbs. 

203.  The  expressions  alter .  .  .  alter^  alius  .  .  .  alius, 
may  be  used  to  express  reciprocity  of  action :  as, 

hi  fratres  alter  alterum  amant,  ^Aese  brothers  love  each  other. 

a.  Alius  is  simply  another;  alter  is  the  other  (of  two)  or  the 
second;  ^  ceteri,  all  the  rest  or  others. 

b.  Alius  and  alter  are  often  used  to  express  one  as  well  as  the 
other  of  the  objects  referred  to  :  2  as, 

alter  consulum,  one  of  the  [two]  consuls. 

aliud  est  maledicere,  aliud  accusare  (Cic),  //  is  one  thing  to  slander^ 
another  to  accuse. 

c.  Alius  with  another  case  of  the  same  word  expresses  shortly 
a  double  statement :  as, 

alius  aliud  petit,  one  man  seeks  one  thing,  one  another. 

alius  alia  via  civitatem  auxerunt  (Liv.  i.  21),  they  enlarged  the  State 
each  in  his  own  way. 

VERBS. 

204.  A  Verb  agrees  with  its  subject-nominative  in 
Number  and  Person  :  as, 

ego  statue,  /  resolve. 

oratio  est  habita,  the  plea  was  spoken. 

a.  A  Verb  having  a  Relative  as  its  subject  takes  thp  person  of 
the  expressed  or  implied  Antecedent :  as, 

adsum  qui  feci  (^n.  ix.  427),   here  am  I  who  did  it. 

b.  The  verb  sometimes  agrees  in  number,  and  in  a  periphrastic 
form  in  gender,  with  a  predicate  noun  or  one  in  apposition  :  as, 

non  omnis  error  stultitia  est  dicenda  (Parad.  vi.  3),  net  every  error 
should  be  called  folly.     [So  Athenae  patria  mea  est,  not  sunt.'\ 

Corinthus  lumen  Graeciae  exstinctum  est,  Corinth  the  light  of  Greece 
is  put  out. 

205.  Two  or  more  singular  subjects  take  a  verb  in 
the  plural ;  also,  rarely,  when  one  is  in  the  ablative  with 
cum  (compare  186.  ^)  :  as, 

pater  et  avus  mortui  sunt,  his  father  and  grandfather  are  dead. 
dux  cum  aliquot  principibus  capiuntur  (Liv.  xxi.  60),  the  general  and 
several  chiefs  are  taken, 

1  Compare  in  English  ex<ery  other  day  for  every  second  day. 

a  Either  pne  may  b«  "  the  other  "  according  to  the  way  you  look  at  them. 


The   Verb  and  its  Subject.  139 

a.  When  the  subjects  are  of  different  persons^  the  verb  will  be 

in  the  first  rather  than  the  second,  and  in  the  second  rather  than 

the  third  :  as, 

si  tu  et  Tullia  valetis  ego  et  Cicero  valemus  (Fam.  xiv.  5),  if  you  and 
Tullia  are  well,  Cicero  and  I  are  well.  [Notice  that  the  first  person 
is  also  first  in  order,  not  last,  as  by  courtesy  in  English.] 

b.  If  the  subjects  are  joined  by  disjunctives,  or  if  they  are  con- 
sidered as  a  single  whole,  the  verb  is  singular :  as, 

neque  fides  neque  jusjurandum  neque  ilium  misericordia  repressit 
(Ter.  Ad.),  not  faith,  nor  oath,  nay,  nor  mercy,  checked  him. 

Senatus  populusque  Romanus  intellegit  (Fam.  v.  8),  the  Roman  Senate 
and  people  understand.  [Here  the  phrase  Senatus,  &c.,  is  the  official 
designation  of  the  government.] 

c.  A  collective  noun  may  take  a  plural  verb  :  as, 
pars  praedas  agebant  (Jug.  32),  apart  brought  in  booty. 

Remark. — Quisque  is  very  often  used  in  apposition  with  a  plural 
subject,  and  perhaps  in  all  cases  where  it  has  a  plural  verb  should  be  so 
considered :  as, 

sibi  quisque  habeant  quod  suum  est  (Plaut.  Cure),  let  every  one  keep 
his  own  [properly,  let  them  keep  every  man  his  own], 

d.  When  the  action  of  the  verb  belongs  to  the  subjects  sepa- 
rately^ it  may  agree  with  one  and  be  understood  with  the  others:  as, 

intercedit  M.  Antonius  et  Cassius  tribuni  plebis  (B.  C.  i.  2),  Anthony 
and  Cassius,  tribunes  of  the  people,  interpose. 

206.  The  Subject  of  the  verb,  and  sometimes  the  verb, 
is  omitted  in  certain  cases. 

a.  The  Personal  Pronoun,  as  subject,  is  usually  omitted  unless 
emphatic:  thus, 

loquor,  I  speak  ;  ego  loquor,  it  is  I  that  speak. 

b.  An  indefinite  subject  is  often  omitted.  This  is  usually  a 
plural  subject,  as  in  dicunt,  ferunt,  perhibent  (they  say)  ;  bu< 
sometimes  singular,  as  inquit  (Tusc.  i.  39),  referring  to  a  class  of 
reasoners  just  spoken  of. 

c.  The  Verb  is  often  omitted  in  certain  phrases  :  as, 
quorsum  haec  [spectant]  ?  what  does  this  aim  at  ? 

ex  ungue  leonem  [cognosces],  you  will  know  a  lion  by  his  claw. 
quid  multa  ?  what  need  of  many  words  ? 
quid  ?  quod,  what  of  this,  that,  &c. 

The  indicative  and  infinitive  of  esse  are  most  frequently  omitted  , 
often  also,  dico  and  facio. 


140  Syntax:  Particles, 


PARTICLES. 
1— Adverbs. 

y  207.  Adverbs  are  used  to  modify  Verbs,  Adjectives, 
and  other  Adverbs. 

Note.  —  The  proper  function  of  Adverbs  as  petrified  (obsolete)  case- 
forms  is  to  modify  Verbs ;  and  so  their  name  denotes.  They  also 
modify  Adjectives,  as  showing  the  manner  or  degree  of  the  exercise  or 
manifestation  of  the  quality  described.  More  rarely  they  modify  other 
Adverbs,  because  they  are  themselves  case-forms  of  adjectives,  and 
kindred  with  them.  Very  rarely,  in  poetry,  adverbs  are  also  used  with 
Nouns  containing  a  verbal  idea,  or  with  those  containing  an  adjective 
idea,  as  in  the  phrase  tua  semper  lenitas.  Many  adverbs,  especially 
relative  adverbs,  serve  as  connectives,  and  are  hardly  to  be  distinguished 
from  conjunctions  (see  25.  /). 

a.  K  Demonstrative  or  Relative  Adverb  is  often  equivalent  to 
/      the  corresponding  Pronoun  with  a  Preposition  (see  201.  f)  :  as, 

eo  (=in  ea)  imponit  vasa  (Jug.  75),  upon  them  [the  beasts]  he  puts 

the  camp-utensils. 
eo  milites  imponere  (B.  G.  i.  42). 
apud  eos  quo  (=  ad  quos)  se  contulit  (Verr.  iv.  18),  among  those  to 

whom  he  resorted. 
qui  eum  necasset  unde  ipse  natus  esset  (R.  Am.  26),  i.e.  one  who 

should  have  killed  his  own  father. 

b.  The  adverbs  propius^  proxime  (like  the  adjectives  propior. 
proximus),  prtdie^posiridie,  are  sometimes  followed  by  the  Accusa- 
tive without  any  preposition ;  palam,  procul^  simuly  by  the  Abla^ 
tive :  as, 

quam  proxime  hostem  (Att.  vi.  5),  as  near  the  enany  as  I  can* 
postridie  ludos  (id.  xvi.  4),  the  day  after  the  games. 
palam  populo  (Liv.),  in  presence  of  the  people. 

'R^UKYiK.  —  Pridie  zwd postridie  are  also  used  with  the  genitive;  clath 
may  take  either  accusative,  ablative,  or  (rarely)  the  dative. 

c.  Many  perfect  participles  used  as  nouns  regularly  retain  tht 
adverb  which  modified  them  as  participles  :  as, 

praeclare  factum,  a  glorious  deed  (a  thing  gloriously  done). 

2.  —  CoivJ  unctions. 

208.  Copulative  and  disjunctive  Conjunctions  connect 
similar  constructions,  and  are  regularly  followed  by  the 
same  case  or  mood  as  that  preceding. 


/ 


Conjunctions  ;   Negative  Particles.  141 

a.  Conjunctions  of  comparison  (as  ut^  quam^  tanquatn)  also 
connect  similar  constructions  :  as, 

perge  ut  instituisti  (Rep.  ii.  \i)y  go  on  as  you  hav€  begun. 

his  igitur  quam  physicis  potius  credendum  existimas  (Div.  ii.  26)  ? 

do  you  think  these  are  more  to  be  trusted  than  the  scientists  ? 
hominem    callidiorem   vidi    neminem   quam   Phormionem  (Ter.),   a 

shrewder  man  I  never  saw  than  Phormio  (compare  247). 

b.  Two  or  more  words  are  often  joined  without  conjunctions  :  ^ 
as,  omnes  di,  homines;  suinini^  jnedii,  infimij  liberi,  servi.  If 
a  conjunction  is  used  where  there  are  more  than  two  words  or 
phrases,  it  is  commonly  used  with  all  except  the  first :  as,  summa 
fide  et  constantid  et  justitid. 

c.  Two  adjectives  belonging  to  the  same  noun  are  regularly 
connected  by  a  conjunction  :  as, 

multae  et  graves  causae,  many  weighty  reasons. 

d.  Many  words  properly  adverbs  may  be  used  correlatively, 
and  lose  their  adverbial  force  and  become  conjunctions :  as, 
cum  {tum)  .  .  tum,  modo  .  .  modo,  siinul  .  .  simul,  qua  .  .  qua, 
nunc  .  .  nunc  (see  107,  p.  57). 

e.  Conjunctions  are  often  doubled,  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  or 
to  bind  a  sentence  more  closely  to  the  preceding:  as,  at  vero, 
itaque  ergo,  nam-que,  et-enim. 

f.  Several  conjunctions  serve  to  introduce  subordinate  clauses 
requiring  a  change  of  Mood  (see  Chap.  V.). 

3,  — Negative  Particles. 
[For  the  Negative  Particles,  see  149.  e,  p.  99.] 
209.  In  the  use  of  the  Negative  Particles,  the  follow- 
ing points  are  to  be  observed  :  — 

a.  Two  negatives  are  equivalent  to  an  aflEirmative,  as  in  English. 
But  a  general  negation  is  not  destroyed  — 

1.  By  a  following  ne  .  .  quidem  or  non  modoj 

2.  By  succeeding  negatives  each  introducing  a  separate  sub- 
ordinate member  ; 

3.  By  neque  introducing  another  co-ordinate  member. 

b.  The  negative  is  regularly  joined  to  the  connective,  and  some^ 
times  to  other  words  ;  so  that  the  form  of  the  negative  in  Latin 
differs  from  that  in  English  in  such  phrases  as  — 

'  The  omission  of  conjunctions  is  called  Asyndeton. 


142  Syntax:  Questions, 

neque  (nee),  and .  .  not,  but .  .  ttot. 

nee  quisquam,  and  no  one.     sine  ullo  periculo. 

nulli  or  neutri  credo,  I  do  not  believe  any  or  either  [of  them]. 

nego  haec  esse  vera  {not  dico  haec  non  esse  vera),  /  say  this  is  not  Prut, 

nihil  unquam  audivi  jucundius,  I  never  heard  anything  jollier. 

c.  A  statement  is  often  made  emphatic  by  denying  its  contrary  * 
(compare  nonnullus,  nonnemo^  etc.,  150.  a). 

d.  The  particle  immo,  nay.,  is  used  to  contradict  some  part  of 
the  statement  or  question,  or  its  form  ;  in  the  latter  case,  the  same 
statement  is  often  repeated  in  a  stronger  form,  so  that  immo 
becomes  nearly  equivalent  to  yes  {nay  but,  nay  rather). 

e.  With  si,  if.,  and  quo,  in  order  that.,  minus  becomes  equiva- 
lent to  non;  so  minime  often  has  the  meaning  not  at  all. 

[For  do  not  in  Prohibitions,  see  269.  a.] 

QUESTIONS. 
210.  Questions  in  Latin   are   introduced   by  special 
Interrogative  words,  and  are  not  distinguished  by  the 
order  of  words,  as  in  English. 

[For  the  Interrogative  Particles,  see  page  99.^.] 

a.  A  question  of  simple  fact^  requiring  the  answer  yes  or  NO, 
is  formed  in  Latin  by  adding  the  syllable  -ne  (enclitic)  to  the 
emphatic  word :  as, 

tune  id  veritus  es  (Cic.)  ?  did  you  fear  that? 

b.  Sometimes  the  interrogative  particle  is  omitted,  when  no 
sign  of  a  question  appears  except  in  the  punctuation  :  as, 

patere  tua  consilia  non  sentis  (Cat.  i.  i)  ?  do  you  not  see  that  your  schemes 
are  manifest  ? 

c.  When  the  syllable  -ne  is  added  to  a  negative  word,  —  as 
nonne,  —  an  affirmative  answer  is  expected.  The  particle  nam 
suggests  a  negative  answer :  as, 

nonne  animadvertis  (N.  D.  iii.  35),  do  you  not  observe  f 
num  dubiuni  est  (R.  Am.  37),  there  is  no  doubly  is  there? 

d.  The  particle  -ne  added  to  the  verb  otten  has  the  force  ot 

nonne,  and  suggests  an  affirmative  answer  (rarely  elsewhere)  :  as, 

meministine  me  in  Senatu  dicere  (Cat.  i.  3)  ?  don''t  you  remember  my 
saying  in  the  Senate  ? 

'  This  form  of  expression  is  caHed  Litotes. 


Interrogative  Forms ;    Double  Questions.        143 

Remark.  —  The  enclitic  -ne  is  sometimes  added  to  other  interroga- 
tive particles  :  as,  utrumne,  anne,  nonne. 

e.  A  question  concerning  some  special  circumstance  is  formed 
by  prefixing  to  the  sentence  an  Interrogative  Pronoun  or  Adverb 
(see  List,  p.  si^\  as, 

quid  est  quod  jam  amplius  exspectes  (Cat.  i.  3)  ?  what  is  there  for  you 
to  look  for  any  more  ? 

Remark.  —  A  question  of  this  form  becomes  an  exclamation  by 
omitting  the  mark  of  interrogation,  or  (in  speech)  by  changing  the 
inflection  of  the  voice  :  as,  qualis  vir  erat !  quot  calamitates  passi  sumus  ! 
ut,  how,  is  used  in  Indirect  questions  ;  and  in  old  Latin  also  in  Direct : 
as,  ut  valet?  how  is  she?  (Plaut.). 

f.  The  particles  nam  (enclitic)  and  tandem  are  added  to  these 
interrogatives  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  :  as, 

quisnam  est  ?  (or  quis  tandem  est  ?  which  would  be  stronger),  pray 

who  is  it? 
ubinam  gentium  sumus  (Cat.  i.  4),  where  in  the  world  are  we? 

Remark. — The  form  of  Indirect  Questions  (in  English  introduced 
by  whether,  or  by  an  interrogative  pronoun  or  adverb)  is  the  same  as 
that  of  direct  ;  the  difference  being  only  in  the  verb,  which  regularly 
takes  the  Subjunctive.  In  indirect  questions  num  loses  its  peculiar 
force.  The  phrases  nescio  quis,  mirum  quam,  and  the  like,  are  Indefinites 
in  meaning,  and  do  not  require  the  subjunctive.  The  expressions  nescio 
an,  dubito  an,  and  the  like,  incline  to  the  Affirmative:  I  almost  think. 

Double  Questions. 

211.  In  Double  or  Alternative  Questions,  utrum  or 
-ne,  whether^  stands  in  the  first  member ;  an,  anne,  or  ; 
annon,  necne,  or  not.,  in  the  second  :  as, 

utrum  nescis,  an  pro  nihilo  id  putas  (Fam.  x.  26),  is  it  that  you  donH 
know  ?  or  do  you  think  nothing  of  it  ? 

quaero  servosne  an  liberos  (Rose.  Am.  27),  /  ask  whether  slaves  or 
free. 

Remark.  —  In  direct  questions,  annon  is  more  frequently  found 
in  the  alternative  ;  in  indirect,  necne. 

a.  The  interrogative  particle  is  often  omitted  in  the  first  mem- 
ber ;  when  -ne  (anne,  necne)  may  stand  in  the  second  :  as,    . 

Gabinio  dicam  anne  Pompeio  (Manil.  19),  shall  I  say  to  Gabinius  or  to 
Pompey  ? 

sunt  haec  tua  verba  necne  (Tusc.  iii.  18),  are  these  your  words  or  not? 


144  Syntax:  Questions. 

b.  Sometimes  the  former  member  is  omitted  or  implied  ;  ana 
an  (anne)  alone  asks  a  question,  —  usually  with  indignation  or 
surprise :  as, 

an  tu  miseros  putas  illos  (Tusc.  i.  7),  what!  do  you  think  those  men 
wretched  ? 

c.  utrum  may  ask  a  question  to  which  there  is  no  alternative, 
the  second  member  being  omitted  :  as, 

utrum   in  clarissimis    est   civibus   is   quem  .  .  .   (Flacc.   16),  is   he 
among  the   noblest  citizens,   whom,    dr'c. 

d.  The  following  exhibits  the  various  forms  of  alternative 
questions :  — 

utrum  ...  an 

...  an  (anne) 

-ne        ...  an 

.  ,   .  -ne 

Quegtion  and  Answer. 

212.  As  there  is  no  one  word  in  Latin  meaning  simply 
yes  or  no,  in  answering  a  question  the  verb  is  generally 
repeated  :  as, 

valetne,  is  he  well?  valet,  yes  (he  is  well). 

eratne  tecum,  was  he  with  you  ?  non  erat,  no  (ke  was  not). 

a.  An  intensive  or  negative  particle  is  sometimes  used  in  answer 
to  a  direct  question  :  thus  vero  {in  truth),  or  etiam  {even  so) 
may  have  the  meaning  of  yes;  and  non  (not),  or  minime  (Jeast- 
of-all),  no,  by  no  means. 

The  particles  thus  used  are,  —  for  Yes  :  etiam,  ita,  factum, 
vero,  sane ;  ita  vero,  ita  est,  sane  quidem;  for  No  :  non,  minime, 
minime  vero,  non  quidem,  non  hercle  vero. 

b.  In  the  answer  to  an  alternative  question,  one  member  of  the 
alternative  must  be  repeated  :  as, 

tune  an  f  rater  erat,  was  it  you  or  your  brother? 
ego  [eram],  it  was  I. 

Remark.  —  From  alternative  questions  must  be  distinguished 
those  in  which  some  part  of  the  question  only  is  alternative,  not  the 
question  itself.  These  have  the  common  disjunctive  particles,  aut 
or  vel  (-ve). 


Construction  of  Cases.  1 45 

Chapter  II.  —  Construction  of  Cases. 

Note.  — The  Cases  of  nouns  express  their  relations  to  other  words 
in  the  sentence.  Originally  the  family  of  languages  to  which  Latin 
belongs  had  at  least  seven  cases,  besides  the  Vocative,  all  expressing 
different  relations.  Of  these  the  Locative  and  Instrumental  cases  were 
lost,  and  their  functions  divided  among  the  others. 

The  Nominative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative  (so  far  as  this  can  be 
called  a  case)  without  doubt  express  the  oldest  forms  of  case-relation 
(Direct  Cases:  31.  N.). '  The  Nominative,  when  it  differs  in  form  from 
the  Accusative,  usually  indicates  the  relation  of  Subject  by  the  pro- 
nominal suffix  s  (p.  14.  n.  2.) ;  the  Vocative,  when  it  differs  from  the 
nominative,  perhaps  never  had  any  suffix.  The  Accusative,  most 
frequently  formed  by  the  suffix  m,  originally  connected  the  noun 
loosely  with  the  verb-idea,  whether  expressed  by  a  verb  or  otherwise  : 
compare  the  use  of  Stems  in  composition,  as  armiger  with  arnia  gerere ; 
Jidicen  v^'xth  Jidibus  canere  ;  hanc  tangere  vi'iih.  hanc  tactio  (Plaut.).  The 
various  uses  of  the  accusative  were  specialized  from  this  vague  relation. 

The  other  cases  were  formed  by  combination  with  various  pro- 
nominal suffixes  for  more  special  uses,  at  first  probably  expressing  rela- 
tions of  place  or  direction  (to,  from,  at,  with  :  Indirect  Cases).  The 
original  meanings  of  these  cases  have  become  confused  with  each  other, 
so  that  in  many  instances  they  are  no  longer  distinguishable  either  in 
form  or  meaning.  CThus  the  Locative  was  for  the  most  part  lost  in 
Latin  from  its  confusion  with  the  Dative  and  Ablative  ;  and  its  func- 
tion was  performed  in  many  instances  by  the  Ablative,  which  is  freely 
used  to  express  the  place  where.  To  indicate  relations  of  place  more 
precisely,  Prepositions  (originally  Adverbs)  gradually  became  necessary. 
These  by  degrees  rendered  the  case-endings  useless,  and  so  have  finally 
superseded  them  in  all  modern  languages  derived  from  Latin.  But  in 
Latin  a  very  large  and  various  body  of  relations  was  still  expressed  by 
cases ;  though  in  many  expressions  forms  with  or  without  a  preposition 
occur,  showing  the  transition  state  :  compare  nitor  with  or  without  in^ 
and  the  ablative  of  separation  with  or  without  ab  or  ex. 

The  names  of  the  oblique  cases,  except  the  Ablative,  are  of  Gre-ek 
origin.  The  name  Genitive  —  Gr.  7€»'</c^  [TTTwo-is],  from  •yivos — refers, 
originally,  to  the  class  to  which  anything  belongs.  The  Dative  —  SoriK-fi 
—  is  the  case  of  giving.  The  name  Accusative  is  a  mistranslation  of 
airiaTiK'fi,  signifying  that  which  is  effected  ox  caused  (aiV/a).  The  original 
name  for  Nominative  {naming)  was  opfl^,  signifying  ^r<f<r/ ;  for  Vocative, 
KKtyriK^  {calling).     The  name  Ablative  means  taking  from. 

10 


146  Syntax:  Genitive. 

GENITIVE. 
Note.  —  The  Genitive  is  the  regular  case  te  express  the  rela- 
tion of  one  noun  to  another  ;  and  hence  is  sometimes  called  the 
adjective  case,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Dative  and  Ablative, 
which  may  be  called  adverbial  cases  (compare  Remark  under  217). 
Its  uses  may  be  classified  as  follows  :  — 

r    I.  of  Possession; 

1.  Subjective :-|    2.  of  Source  developed  into  Material; 

I    3*  or  Quality  (with  Adjectives). 

2.  Partitive  :      of  the  Whole,  after  words  designating  a  Part. 
I.  with  Nouns  of  action  and  feeling. 
2    with  Adiectives    \  Relative  adjective  or  Verbal. 


3.  Objective;  ■ 


for  Specification  (later  use). 


3.  with  Verbs  \  ^J  Memory,  Feeling  (primary  object). 
-^  (of  Accusing,  &c.  (secondary  object). 


I.  — WITH    NOUNS. 

213.  A  noun  used  to  limit  or  define  another,  and  not 
meaning  the  same  thing,  is  put  in  the  genitive.  This 
relation  is  most  frequently  expressed  in  English  by  the 
preposition  of  :  as,^ 

libri  CiceroniB,  the  books  of  Cicero. 

talentum  auri,  a  talent  of  gold. 

vir  summae  virtutis,  a  inan  of  the  greatest  courage. 

pars  militum,  a  part  of  the  soldiers. 

oultus  deorum,  worship  of  the  gods. 

vacatio  laboris,  a  respite  from  toil. 

victor  omnium  gentium,  conqueror  of  all  nations. 

Remark.  —  The  phrase  amor  patris,  love  of  a  father^  may 
mean  \owt  felt  by  a  father  (subjective  genitive),  or  love  towards 
a  father  (objective  genitive).  For  the  former  the  adjective  patrlus 
would  be  commonly  used  :  compare  a  father's  love  and  love  of  a 
father. 

SuldcMitive  Oenltive. 

214.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  a  noun  to  denote  the 
Author,  Owner,  Source.  Here  belongs  also  the  Geni- 
tive of  Material  (see  e). 

*  The  genitive  seems  originally  to  have  meant  that  from  which  something 
springs  (origin  or  source);  hence,  that  to  which  it  belongs.  From  this  significa- 
tion most  of  the  others  m.iy  be  deduced. 


Subjective  Genitive.  1 47 

a.  For  the  genitive  of  Possession  a  possessive  adjective  i? 
often  used,  — regularly  for  that  of  the  personal  pronouns  (190)  :  a*^ 

liber  meus,  my  book. 

aliena  pericula,  other  men's  dangers. 

Sullana  tempora,  the  times  of  Sylla. 

b.  The  noun  limited  is  understood  in  a  few  expressions  :  as, 

Castoris  [aedes],  the  [temple]  of  Castor. 

Hectoris  Andromache,  Hector's  [wife]  Andromache. 

c.  The  genitive  is  often  in  the  Predicate,  connected  vrith  its 
noun  by  a  copulative  verb  :  as, 

haec  domus  est  patris  mei,  this  house  is  my  father's. 

tutelae  nostrae  [eos]  duximus  (Liv.),  we  held  them  [to  be]  in  our  pro- 
tection. 

lucri  facere,  to  get  the  benefit  of 

jam  me  Pompeii  totum  esse  scis  (Fam.  ii.  i"^,  you  know  I  am  now  all 
for  Pompey. 

Remark, — These  genitives  bear  the  same  relation  to  those  in  213 
that  the  noun  in  predicate  agreement  bears  to  the  appositive  (185). 

d.  An  infinitive  or  a  clause,  used  as  a  noun,  is  often  limited  by 
the  genitive  of  adjectives  or  nouns,  or  takes  a  possessive  in 
agreement :  as, 

neque   sui  judicii   [erat]  decernere  (B.  C.  i.  35),  it  was  not  for  his 

judgment  to  decide. 
cujusvis  hominis  est  errare  (Cic),  //  is  any  main's  [liability]  to  err. 
mentiri  non  est  meum,  it  is  not  for  me  to  lie. 
humanum  \for  hominis]  est  errare,  it  is  man's  nature  to  err. 
negavit  moris  esse  Graecorum,  ut  in  convivio  virorum  accumberent 

mulieres  (Verr.  ii.  28),  he  said  it  was  not  the  custom  of  the  Greeks 

for  women  to  recline  [as  guests]  at  the  banquets  of  men. 
timidi  est  optare  necem  (Ov.  M.  iv.  15),  //  is  for  the  coward  to  wish  for 

death. 

Remark.  —  The  genitive   of  an  adjective   (especially  of   the 
third  declension)  is  thus  used  to  express  the  same  general  idea 
.   as  the  neuter  nominative  :  as, 

stulti  erat  sperare,  suadere  impudentis  (Phil.  ii.  10),  //  was  {would 

have  been)  folly  to  hope,   effrontery  to  urge. 
sapientis  \not  sapiens]  est  pauca  loqui,  it  is  wise  [the  part  of  a  wise 

man]  to  say  little. 

e.  A  genitive  may  denote  the  Substance  or  Material  of  which 
a  thing  consists  (compare  216,  244)  :  as, 

talentum  auri,  a  talent  of  gold. 
flumina  lactis,  rivers  of  milk. 


148  Syntax:  The  Genitive, 

f.  A  limiting  genitive  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  a  noun  in 
apposition  :  as, 

nomen  insaniae,  the  word  madness. 
oppidum  Antiochiae,  the  city  of  Antioch. 

g.  The  genitive  is  often  used  with  the  ablatives  causa,  gratia, 
for  the  sake  of;  ergo,  because  of;  and  the  indeclinable  instar, 
like  J  also  with  pridie,  the  day  before;  postridie,  the  day  after ; 
tenuB,  as  far  as  {d.  for  his  sake,  his  like,  &c.). 

Genitive  of  Quality. 

215.  The  genitive  is  used  to  denote  Quality,  but  only 
when  the  quality  is  modified  by  an  adjective  (usually  an 
indefinite  one)  :  as, 

vir  summae  virtutis,  a  man  of  the  highest  courage. 

magnae  est  deliberationis,  it  is  an  affair  of  great  deliberation, 

magni  formica  laboris,  the  ant,  [a  creature]  of  great  toil. 

Note.  —  Compare  Ablative  of  Quality  (p.  174).  In  expressions  of 
Quality,  the  genitive  and  ablative  may  often  be  used  indifferently :  as, 
praestanti  prudentia  virum,  maximi  animi  hominem  (Cic).  But,  in 
general  the  genitive  is  thus  used  rather  of  essential,  the  ablative  of 
special  or  incidental  characteristics  or  conditions. 

a.  The  genitive  of  quality  is  found  in  the  adjective  phrases  ejus 
modi,  cujus  modi  (equivalent  to  talis,  such,  qualis,  of  what  sort). 

b.  The  genidve  (of  quality),  with  numerals,  is  used  to  define 
measures  of  length,  depth,  &c. :  as, 

fossa  trium  pedum,  a  trench  of  three  feet  [depth], 
murus  sedccim  pedum,  a  wall  sixteen  feet  [highj. 

c.  Certain  genitives  of  Quantity  —  as  magni,  parvi,  nihili, 
pluris,  minoris  —  are  used  to  express  indefinite  Value  (see  Ab- 
lative of  Price,  252). 

PartitlTe  Genitive. 

216.  Words  denoting  a  Part  are  followed  by  the 
genitive  of  the  Whole  to  which  the  part  belongs. 

a.  Partitive  words,  followed  by  the  genitive,  are  — 
I.  Nouns  or  Pronouns  :  as, 
pars  militum,  part  of  the  soldiers, 
quis  nostrum,  which  of  usf  (compare  e,  below), 
nihil  erat  reliqui,  there  was  nothing  left. 


Partitive  Genitive.  149 

2.  Numerals,  Comparatives,  and  Superlatives  :  as, 
alter  consulum,  one  of  the  [two]  consuls. 

unus  tribunorum,  one  of  the  tribunes. 

plurimum  totius  Galliae  equitatu  valet  (B.  G.  v.  4),  is  strongest 
in  cavalry  of  all  Gaul. 

3.  Neuter  adjectives  and  pronouns  used  as  nouns  :  as, 
tantum  spatii,  so  much  space. 

aliquid  nummorum,  a  few  pence. 

id  loci  {or  locorum),  that  spot  of  ground. 

id  temporis,  at  that  time. 

plana  urbis,  the  level  parts  of  the  town. 

quid  novi  ?  what  news  ? 

Remark.— Of  adjectives  of  the  third  declension  the  genitive  is 
rarely  used  in  this  way.     Thus  — 

nihil  novi  (gen.),  nothing  new ;  but 

nihil  memorabile  (nom.),  nothing  worth  mention. 

4.  Adverbs,  especially  of  Quantity  and  Place  :  as, 
satis  pecuniae,  money  enough. 

parum  otii,  not  much  ease. 

inde  loci,  next  in  order. 

turn  temporis,  at  that  point  of  time. 

eo  miseriarum  (Sail.),  to  that  pitch  of  misery. 

b.  The  poets  and  later  writers  often  use  the  partitive  genitive 
after  adjectives,  instead  of  a  noun  in  its  proper  case  :  as, 

sequimur  te  sancte   deorum    (^n.  iv.  576),  we  follow  thee,  O  holy 

deity. 
nigrae  lanarum  (Plin.  H.  N.  viii.  48),  black  wools. 
electi  juvenum  (Liv.  xxx.  9),  chosen  youths . 
cunctos  hominum  (Ov.),  all  men  (but  compare  e). 

c.  Cardinal  numbers  regularly  —  also  quidam  more  commonly, 
and  other  words  rarely  —  take  the  ablative  with  e  (ex)  or  de, 
instead  of  the  genitive  :  as, 

unus  ex  tribunis,  one  of  the  tribunes. 

minumus  ex  illis  (Jug.  11),  the  youngest  of  them. 

medius  ex  tribus  (ib.),  the  middle  one  of  the  three. 

d.  With  nouns  uterque  generally  agrees  as  an  adjective;  but 
with  pronouns  it  always  takes  a  genitive  :  as, 

uterque  consul,  both  the  consuls. 
uterque  nostrum,  both  of  us. 


150  Syntax:   The  Genitive. 

e.  Numbers  and  words  of  quantity  including  the  whole  of  any 
thing,  or  when  no  others  are  thought  of,  take  a  case  in  agreement, 
and  not  the  partitive  genitive  :  as, 

nos  omnes,  all  of  us. 

quot  sunt  hostes,  how  many  of  the  enemy  are  there?  \many. 

cave  inimicos  qui  multi  sunt,  beware  of  your  enemies  of  whom  you  have 

multi  milites,  many  of  the  soldiers. 

nemo  Romanus,  not  one  Roman. 

Objective  Genitive. 

217.  Nouns  of  Action,  Agency,  and  Feeling,  govern 
the  genitive  of  the  object :  ^  as, 

desiderium  otii,  longing  for  rest. 

vacatio  muneris,  relief  from  duty. 

gratia  beneficii,  gratitude  for  kindness. 

fuga  malorum,  refuge  from  disaster. 

laudator  temporis  acti,  a  praiser  of  the  past, 

precatio  deorum,  prayer  to  the  gods. 

dolor  capitis,  pain  in  the  head. 

contentio  honorum,  struggle  for  office. 

opinio  virtutis,  reputation  for  valor. 

Remark.  —  One  noun  limiting  another  is  regularly  used  in  the  geni- 
tive, and  not  with  a  preposition,  —  prepositions  being  originally  adverbs^ 
and  requiring  a  verb.  Sometimes,  however,  one  noun  has  another  con- 
nected with  it  by  a  preposition.  This  happens  with  nouns  of  action, 
feelings  and  motion  ;  and  in  some  relations  of  place  to  or  in  which  ox  from 
which  (including  origin),  accompaniment,  &c.  (compare  227.  d) :  as, 

odium  in  Caesarem  [or  odium  Caesaris),  hate  of  Ccesar. 

merita  erga  me  (Cic),  services  to  me. 

auxilium  adversus  inimicos  (id.),  help  against  enemies. 

redltus  in  caelum  (id.),  return  to  heaven. 

impetus  in  me  (id),  attack  on  me. 

excessus  e  vita  (id.),  departure  from  life. 

a.  Occasionally  possessive  adjectives  are  used  for  the  genitive 
of  the  Object :  as, 

externus  timor,  dread  of  the  stranger  (see  197.  a). 

b.  The  objective  genitive  is  rarely  used  with  a  noun  limited  by 

another  genitive :  as, 

animi  multarum  rerum  percursio  (Tusc.  iv.  13),  the  mind's  traversing 
of  many  things. 

1  This  is  an  extension  of  the  idea  of  belonging  to ;  as  in  the  phrase  odium 
CaeMirifl,  ha/e  «f  Ctesar,  the  hate  in  a  passive  sense  belongs  to  Caesar,  though 
b  its  active  sense  he  is  the  object  of  it 


Genitive  with  Adjectives.  151 

II. -WITH    ADJECTIVES. 

218.  Adjectives  requiring  an  object  of  reference  {ad- 
jectiva  relativd)  govern  the  genitive. 

a.  Adjectives  denoting  Desire,  Knowledge,  Memory,  Fulness, 
Power,  Sharing,  Guilt,  and  their  opposites,  are  followed  by  the 
genitive  :  as, 

avidus  laudis,  greedy  of  praise. 

fastidiosus  literarum,  disdaining  letters. 

juris  (jure)  peritus,  skilled  in  law. 

sui  ohWins,  forgetful  of  himself. 

rationis  et  orationis  expertes  (Off.  i.  16),  devoid  of  reason  and  speech. 

b.  Verbals  in  ax ;  also  Participles  in  ns  when  used  to  denote  a 
disposition  and  not  a  particular  act,  so  that  they  become  adjectives, 
take  the  genitive  :  as, 

justum  et  tenacem  propositi  virum  (Hor.  Od.  iii.  3),  a  man  just  and 
steadfast  to  his  purpose. 

si  quern  tui  amantiorem  cognovisti  (Q.  Fr.  ix.  i),  if  you  have  become 
acquainted  with  any  one  more  fond  of  you. 

multitude  insolens  belli  (B.  C.  ii.  36),  a  crowd  unused  to  war. 

sitiens  sanguinis,  thirsting  for  blood.     But^ 

Tiberius  sitiens  sanguinem  (Tac),  Tiberius  [then]  thirsting  for  blood. 

Remark.  —  With  the  accusative,  participles  in  ns  are  participles 
"  referring  to  an  act ;  "  with  a  genitive,  they  are  adjectives  "  referring  to 
the  fact.'' 

c.  Some  other  adjectives  of  quality  or  agency  often  take  the 
genitive  ;  and  the  poets  and  late  writers  use  almost  any  adjective 
with  a  genitive  of  specification  :  as, 

callidus  rei  militaris  (Tac.  H.  ii.  31),  skilled  in  soldiership. 

pauper  aquarum  (Hor.),  scant  of  water. 

notus  a.mm\,  famed  for  spirit. 

fessi  rerum  (Virg.),  weary  of  toil. 

integer  vitae  scelerisque  purus  (Hor.),  upright  in  life,  and  pure  of  guilt. 

Remark.  —  Animi  (strictly  a  locative,  plural  animis)  is  added 
to  adjectives  oi  feeling  :  as, 

aeger  animi,  sick  at  heart. 

confusus  animi,  disturbed  in  spirit. 
.  d.  A  few  adjectives  of  Likeness,  Nearness,  Belonging  —  ordi- 
narily requiring  the  dative  —  take  the  possessive  genitive,  especially 
when  used  as  nouns  ;  these  are,  aequdlis.,  afftnis.,  communis,  finiti- 
mus,  par,  propinquus,proprius  (regularly),  similis,  victnus. 


152  Syntax:   The  Genitive. 

Ill  —WITH    VERBS. 
Verbs  of  Memory. 

219.  Verbs  of  Remembering,  Forgetting,  and  Re- 
minding, take  the  genitive  of  the  object  when  they  are 
used  of  a  continued  state  of  mind,  but  the  accusative 
when  used  of  a  single  act :  as, 

pueritiae  memoriam  recordari  (Arch.),  to  recall  the  memory  of  childhood. 

animus  meminit  praeteritorum  (Div.  i.  30),  the  soul  remembers  the  past. 

venit  mihi  in  mentem  illius  diei,  /  bethought  me  of  that  day. 

obliviscere  caedis  atque  incendiorum  (Cat.  i.  3),  turn  your  mind  from 
slaughter  and  conflagrations. 

totam  causam  oblitus  est  (Brut.  60),  he  forgot  the  whole  case. 

Remark.  —  The  above  distinction  is  unimportant  as  to  verbs  of  Re- 
minding, which  take  the  genitive  except  of  neuter  pronouns  :  as,  hoc  te 
admoneo.  The  accusative  is  always  used  of  a  person  or  thing  remem- 
bered by  an  eye-witness.  Recordor  is  almost  always  construed  with  an 
Accusative,  or  with  a  phrase  or  clause. 

Chargre  and  Penalty. 

220.  Verbs  of  Accusing,  Condemning,  and  Acquit- 
ting, take  the  genitive  of  the  charge  or  penalty :  as, 

arguit  me  furti,  he  accuses  me  of  theft. 

peculatus  damnatus  (pecuniae  publicae  damnatus)  (Flac.  18),  con- 
demned for  embezzlement. 

video  non  te  absolutum  esse  improbitatis  sed  illos  damnatos  esse 
caedis  (Verr.  ii.  28),  /  see  not  that  you  were  acquitted  of  outrage, 
but  that  they  were  condemned  for  homicide. 

a.  Peculiar  genitives,  under  this  construction,  are  — 
capitis  (damnare  capitis,  to  sentence  to  death)  ; 

majestatis  [laesae],  treason  (crime  against  the  dignity  of  the  State) ; 
repetundarum,  extortion  (lit.  of  an  action  for  claiming  back  money 

wrongfully  taken) ; 
voti  (damnatus  or  reus  voti,  bound  to  the  payment  of  onc*s  vow  ;  i.e. 

successful  in  one's  effort). 

b.  The  crime  may  be  expressed  by  the  ablative  with  de ;  the 
punishment  by  the  ablative  alone  :  *  as, 

de  vi  et  majestatis  damnati  (Phil,  i),  convicted  of  assault  and  treason, 
vitia  autem  hominum  atque  fraudes  damnis,  ignominiis,  vinculis,  ver- 
beribus,  exsiliis,  morte  damnantur  (De  Or.  i.  43),  but  the  vices  and 
crimes  of  men  are  punished  with  fines,  dishonor,  chains,  scourging^ 
exile,  death. 

*  But,  inter  stearics  accusare  or  d4^ender*y 


Genitive  with   Verbs,  153 

Verbs  of  Feeling;. 

221.  Many  verbs  of  Emotion  take  the  genitive  of  the 
object  which  excites  the  feeUng.     Thus  — 

a.  Verbs  of  Pity,  as  misereor  and  miseresco,  are  followed  by 
the  genitive :  as, 

miserescite  regis  (^n.  viii.  573),//-^  the  king. 

miserere  animi  non  digna  ferentis  (id.  ii.  144), //(j/  a  soul  that  tndures 

unworthy  things. 

But  miseror,  commiseror,  bewail,  take  the  Accusative. 

b.  The  impersonals  miaeret,  paenitet,  piget,  pudet,  taedet  (or 
pertaesum  est),  take  the  genitive  of  the  object  with  the  accusative 
of  the  person  affected  :  as, 

hos  (homines  infamiae  suae  neque  pudet  neque  taadet  (Verr.  i.  12), 
these  men  are  neither  ashamed  nor  weary  of  their  dishonor. 

c.  An  Infinitive,  a  Clause,  or  an  accusative  of  a  neuter  pronoun 
may  be  used  with  these  impersonal  verbs  instead  of  the  genitive 
of  a  noun  :  as, 

me  paenitet  haec  fecisse,  /  repent  of  having  done  this. 

nihil  quod  paenitere  possit  (Cic),  nothing  that  may  cause  repentance. 

d.  Sometimes  they  are  used  personally  :  as, 

nonne  te  haec  pudent  (Ter.  Ad.),  do  not  these  things  shame  you? 

222.  The  impersonals  interest  and  refert  take  the  geni- 
tive of  the  person  (rarely  the  thing)  affected,  —  the  sub- 
ject of  the  verb  being  a  neuter  pronoun  or  a  substantive 
clause  :  as, 

Clodii  intererat  Milonem  perire  (Mil.  21),  //  was  the  interest  of  Clodius 
that  Milo  should  die. 

Remark.  —  The  use  of  the  genitive  with  interest  is  probably  to  be 
referred  to  its  predicate  use  (214.  d). 

a.  Instead  of  the  genitive  of  a  personal  pronoun  the  correspond- 
ing  possessive  is  used  in  the  ablative  singular  feminine  after  in- 
terest or  refert :  ^  as, 

quid  tua  id  refert.?  —  magni   (Ter.  Ph.),  how  does  that  concern  you? 
much. 

vehemente    intererat  vestra  qui  patres  estis  (Plin.),  //  would  be  very 
much  to  your  advantage,  you  who  are  fathers. 

^  Refert  is  seldom  used  in  any  other  way ;  but  it  takes  rarely  the  dative  (of 
JtefM-ence),  as  in  Hot.  Sat.  i.  i,  49  :  quid  referat  intra  naturae  fints  viventi. 


154  Syntax:  The  Dative, 

b.  The  accusative  with  ad  is  used  to  express  the  Thing  with 
reference  to  which  one  is  interested  :  as, 

magni  ad  honorem  nostrum  interest  (Fam.  xvi.  i),  //  is  of  great  con- 
sequence to  our  honor. 

223.  Some  verbs  of  Plenty  and  Want  gove^-n  the 
genitive  (rarely,  except  egeo^  indigeo,  satago)  :  as, 

quid  est  quod  defensionis  indigeat  ?  (Rose.  Am.  12),  what  is  there  thcU 
needs  defence  ? 

satagit  rerum  suarum,  he  has  his  hands  full  with  his  own  affairs. 

a.  The  genitive  sometimes  follows  potior,  get  possession  ofj 
as  always  in  the  phrase  potiri  rerum,  to  be  master  of  affairs. 

b.  Verbs  of  plenty  and  want  more  commonly  take  the  Ablative 
(see  243,  248.  c). 

DATIVE. 

^  224.  The  Dative  is  used  of  the  object  indirectly  affected 
by  an  action.  This  object  is  usually  denoted  in  English 
by  TO  or  for  :  as, 

dat  librum  puero,  he  gives  a  book  to  the  boy. 

cedite  tempori,  yielct  to  the  occasion. 

provincia  Ciceroni  obtigit,  the  province  fell  by  lot  to  Cicero. 

inimicis  non  credimus,  we  do  not  trust  [to]  our  enemies. 

civitatis  saluti  consulite,  consult  for  the  safety  of  the  State. 

sic  mihi  videtur,  so  it  seems  to  me. 

utile  rei  publicae,  iiseful  to  the  State. 

naturae  contrarium,  opposite  to  nature. 

Note.  —  The  dative  seems  to  have  the  primary  meaning  of  towards, 
and  to  be  closely  akin  to  the  Locative.  But  this  meaning  is  lost  in 
Latin,  except  in  some  adverbial  forms  (eo,  illo,  &c.)  and  in  the  poets. 
In  most  of  its  derived  meanings,  it  denotes  an  object  not  merely  (like 
the  Accusative)  z.s passively  affectedhy  the  action,  or  caused hy  it ;  but  as 
reciprocally  sharing  in  the  action,  or  receiving  it  actively.  Thus,  in  dedit 
mihi  librum,  he  gave  me  a  book,  or  fecit  mihi  injuriam,  he  did  me  an 
injury  ;  it  is  I  that  receive  the  book  or  feel  the  wrong.  Hence  persons, 
or  objects  personified,  are  most  likely  to  be  in  the  dative.* 

As  this  difference  between  the  accusative  and  dative  (direct  and  indi- 
rect object)  depends  on  the  view  taken  by  the  writer,  verbs  of  similar 

*  So  in  the  Spanish,  the  dative  is  used  whenever  a  Person  is  the  object  of  an 
Mtion :  as,  yo  veo  al  hombrot  /  set  the  man. 


Dative  with   Transitives.  155 

meaning  in  different  languages,  or  even  in  the  same,  differ  in  the  case  of 
the  object.  In  English,  especially,  owing  to  the  loss  of  its  cases,  many 
verbs  are  construed  as  transitive,  which  in  Latin  require  the  dative. 
Thus  believe^  which  in  English  originally  governed  the  genitive,  has  be- 
come transitive  ;  while  the  corresponding  verb  in  Latin,  credo  (a  com- 
pound of  cred  and  do,  to  place  confidence  in)  takes  the  dative. 

The  uses  of  the  Dative  are  the  following  :  — 

.      r  ^  /  ,        X    (  a.  with  Transitives. 

1.  As  Indirect  Object  (general  use):  |  ^  ^j^j^  intransitives. 

f  a.  of  Possession  (with  esse). 
J   b.  of  Agency  (with  Gerund). 

2.  Special  or  Idiomatic  Uses  :    1   <:.  of  Service  (predicate  use). 


I  d.  of  Fitness,  &c.  (with  Adjectives) 
t  ^.  of        " 


Reference  [dativus  commodi). 


With  Transitives. 

225.  The  Dative  of  the  Indirect  object  may  be  used 
with  any  transitive  verb  whose  meaning  permits  it, 
along  with  the  accusative  of  the  Direct :  as, 

do  tibi  librum,  /give  you  a  book. 
illud  tibi  afifirmo  (Fam.  i  7),  this  I  assure  you. 

commendo  tibi  ejus  omnia  negotia  (Fam.  i.  i),  I  put  all  his  affairs  in 
your  hands. 

dabis  profecto  misericordiae  quod  iracundiae  negavisti  (id.  14),  yon 
will  surely  grant  to  mercy  what  you  refused  to  wrath. 

a.  Many  verbs  may  be  either  transitive  or  intransitive,  and 
have  the  accusative  with  the  dative, or  the  dative  alone  :  as, 

hanc  pecuniam  tibi  credo,  I  trust  this  money  to  you. 
in  hac  re  tibi  credo,  /  trust  you  in  this  affair. 

b.  When  the  idea  of  motion  is  distinctly  conveyed,  a  preposition 
with  its  case  is  used,  but  the  dative  occurs  in  poetry  :  as, 

has  litteras  ad  te  mitto,  I  send  you  this  letter. 

it  clamor  caelo  {Mx\..  v.  451 ),  a  shout  goes  to  the  sky. 

c.  Many  verbs  usually  found  with  a  dative  of  the  person  may 
■  also  take  an  accusative  of  the  thing  (see  227)  :  as, 

cui  cum  rex  crucem  minitaretur  (Tusc.  i.  43),  when  the  king  threat- 
ened him  with  the  cross. 

imperat  oppidanis  decem  talenta,  he  exacts  of  the  townspeople  tetk 
talents. 

omnia  sibi  ignoscere  (Veil.  ii.  30),  to  pardon  oneself  every  thing, 

Crasso  divitias  non  invideo,  /  do  not  envy  Crassus  his  wealth. 


156  Syntax:    The  Dative. 

d.  Certain  verbs  capable  of  two  different  senses  ^  may  take 
either  the  dative  of  a  person  and  the  accusative  of  a  thing,  or  the 
accusative  of  a  person  and  the  ablative  of  a  thing  :  as, 

donat  coronas  suis,  he  presents  wreaths  to  his  men  ;  or, 

donatsuos  coronis,  he  presents  his  men  with  wreaths. 

pomis  se  induit  arbos  (G.  iv.  143),  the  tree  decks  itself  with  fruits. 

copiis   (dat.)  armis  exutis  (B.  G.  iii.  6),  the  forces  being  stripped  0} 
arms. 

aram  sanguine  adspergere  (N.  D.  iii.  36),  to  sprinkle  the  altar  with 

blood. 

e.  Verbs  which  in  the  active  voice  take  the  accusative  and 
dative  retain  the  dative  when  used  in  the  passive  :  as, 

haec  nobis  nuntiantur,  these  things  are  told  us. 
Crasso  divitiae  non  invidentur,  Crassus  is  not  envied  for  his  wealth. 
decern   talenta  oppidanis  imperantur,  ten  talents  are  exacted  of  the 
townspeopU. 

With  Intrangitives. 

226.  Intransitive  verbs  take  the  dative  of  the  Indirect 
object  only :  as, 

cedant  arma  togae  (Phil.  i.  8),  let  arms  give  place  to  the  gown, 

Caesari  respondet,  he  replies  to  Ccesar. 

Caesari  respondetur,  Casar  is  replied  to  (see  230). 

credimus  nuntio,  we  believe  the  messenger. 

nuntio  creditor,  the  messenger  is  believed. 

respondi  maximis  criminibus  (Phil.  i.  14),  I  have  answered  the  heaviest 

charges. 
ut  ita  cuique  eveniat  (id.  46),  that  it  may  so  turn  out  to  each. 

a.  The  dative  is  used  as  the  object  of  reference  of  many  phrases 
consisting  of  a  noun  with  a  copulative  verb  (compare  235)  :  as, 

auctor  esse  alicui,  to  advise  or  instigate  one. 

quis  huic  rei  testis  est  (Quinc.  11),  who  testifies  to  this  fact  f 

is  finis  populationibus  fuit  (Liv.  ii.  30),  this  put  an  end  to  the  raids. 

b.  The  dative  is  sometimes  used  without  a  copulative  verb  in  a 
sense  approaching  the  genitive  (compare  227.  d^  235.  a)  :  as, 

legatus  Caesari,  a  lieutenant  to  Casar  (i.e.,  a  man  sent  as  a  lieutenant 

to  Caesar), 
heres  fratri  suo,  his  brother's  heir. 
ministri  sceleribus,  agents  of  crime. 

*  These  are  dono^  imjfiertio,  induo,  exuo,  adspergo,  inspergo,  circumdo,  eir- 
$umfundOt  prohibeo,  inttrdudo,  inUrdiec  (dat  with  aoc  or  abl. ). 


Dative  with  Intransitives.  157 

227.  Most  verbs  signifying  to  favor ^  help ^  please,  trusty 
and  their  contraries  ;  also,  to  believe,  persuade,  command, 
obey,  serve,  resist,  envy,  threaten^  pardon,  and  spare}  take 
the  Dative  (so  with  phrases  of  like  meaning) :  as, 

cur  mihi  invides,  why  do  you  envy  me  ? 

mihi  parcit  atque  ignoscit,  he  spares  and  pardons  me. 

ignosce  patrio  dolori  (Liv.  iii.  6^%),  pity  a  father' s  grief . 

sontibus  opitulari  poteram  (Fam.  iv.  13),  I  was  able  to  help  the  guilty 

non  omnibus  servio  (id.  xvi.  13),  I  am  not  a  servant  to  every  man. 

cum  ceteris  tum  mihi  ipsi  displiceo  (id.  iv.  13),  I  dissatisfy  other  peopte 

and  myself  too. 
non  parcam  operae  (id.  xvi.  13),  I  will  spare  no  pains. 
sic  mihi  persuasi  (Cat.  M.  21),  so  I  have  persuaded  myself , 
huic  legioni  Caesar  confidebat  maxime  (B.  G.  i.  40). 
cui  fidem  habebat(B.  G.  i.  19),  in  whom,  &c. 

Note.  —  Several  classes  of  verbs  in  this  list  (as  to  favor,  envy, 
serve,  &c.)  seem  to  be  transitive.  In  fact,  however,  the  Latin  retains  a 
primary  meaning  which  is  not  found  in  the  English :  as,  invidere,  to 
envy,  is  to  look  [askance]  at  one  ;  servire,  is  to  be  a  slave ;  suadere,  is  to 
make  [a  thing]  pleasant  to  any  one  (compare  suavis,  sweet). 

a.  Some  verbs  apparently  of  the  same  meanings  —  as,  juvo, 
adjuvo,  help,  laedo,  injure;  jubeo,  order;  de&cio,  fail — take 
the  accusative,  indicating  a  more  direct  relation  or  effect.     Thus  — 

multa  oculis  nocent,  many  things  are  injurious  to  the  eyes  ;  but, 

hie  pulvis  oculum  meum  laedit,  this  dust  hurts  my  eye. 
b.  Some  verbs  take  the  dative  or  accusative  indifferently:  as, 
adulor,  aemidor,  comitor,  despero,  praestolor,  medeor,  medicor. 

c.  Some  verbs  take  the  dative  or  accusative  according  to  their 

signification :  ^  as, 

parti  civium  consulunt  (Off.  i.  25),  they  consult  for  a  party  of  the 
citizens. 

cum  te  consuluissem  (Fam.  xi.  29),  when  I  had  consulted  you. 
metuens  pueris  (Plant.  Am.  v.  i),  anxious  for  the  boys. 
nee  metuunt  deos  (Ter.  Hec.  v.  2),  they  fear  not  even  the  gods  [so  also 
timed\. 

prospicite  patriae  (Cat.  iv.  2),  have  regard  for  the  State. 
prospicere  sedem  senectuti  (Liv.  iv.  49),  to  provide  a  habitation  for  old 
age  [so  z\so providere\. 

1  These  include,  among  others,  the  following :  adverser,  credo,  faveo,  fdo, 
ignosco,  impero,  invideo,  irascor,  suscenseo,  resisto,  noceo,  parco,  pareo,  placeo, 
servio,  studeo,  suadeo  {persuadeo),  tempera  {obtempero\  dicto  audiens  sum. 

2  See  Lexicon  under  convenio,  cupio,  fidd  (abl.),  insisto,  maneo,  praeverto^ 
recipio,  renuntio,  solve,  succedo,  caveo. 


158  Syntax:   The  Dative. 

d.  Some  verbal  nouns  —  as  iusidiae,  ambush,  invidia,  envy  — 
take  the  dative  like  the  verbs  whence  they  are  derived  :  as, 

invidia  consuU  (Sail.),  ill-will  against  the  consul. 
obtemperatio  legibus  (Leg.  i.  15),  obedience  to  the  laws. 
$ibi  ipsi  responsio  (Dc  Or.  iii.  54),  an  answer  to  himself. 

e.  The  dative  is  used  after  the  Impersonals  libet^  licet;  after 
verbs  compounded  with  satis ^  bene.,  and  male  j  together  with  the 
following :  gratijicor,  gratulor,  haereo  (rarely),  nubo^  permitto, 
plaudo,  probo,  studeo,  supplico,  excello :  as, 

Optimo  viro  maledicere  (Dej.  10),  to  slander  an  excellent  man. 
quod  mihi  maxima  lubet  (Fam.  i.  18),  what  most  pleases  me  (see  12.  c). 
mihi  ipsi  nunquam  satisfacio  (id.  17),  I  never  satisfy  myself 
pulcrum  est  benefacere  rei  publicae  (Sail.  C.  3),  //  is  a  noble  thing  to 

benefit  the  commonwealth. 
haerentem  capiti  coronam  (Hor.  S.  i.  10),  a  wreath  clinging  to  the  head. 
Pompeio  se  gratificari  putant  (id.  i.  i),  they  suppose  they  are  doing 

Pompey  a  service. 
tibi  permitto  respondere  (N.  D.  iii.  i),  I  give  you  leave  to  answer. 

With  ComponncUu 

228.  Most  verbs  compounded  with  ad,  ante,  con,  in, 
inter,  ob,  post,  prae,  pro,  sub,  super,  and  some  with  circtim, 
are  followed  by  the  dative  of  Indirect  Object  :^  as, 

neque  enim  adsentior  lis  (Lael.  z)>f^  ^ ^^  ^^  <^^'  "^^h  them. 
tempestati  obsequi  artis  est  (Fam.  i.  9),  //  is  a  point  of  skill  to  yield  to 

the  weather. 
omnibus  negotiis  non  interfuit  solum  sed  praefuit  (id.  i.  6),  he  not 

only  had  a  hand  in  all  matters,  but  took  the  lead  in  them. 
quantum  natura  hominis  pecudibus  antecedit  (Off.  i.  30),  so  far  as 

man's  nature  is  superior  to  brutes. 
nee  unquam  succumbet  inimicis  (Dej.  13),  he  will  never  bend  before 

his  foes. 
illis  libellis  nomen  suum  inscribunt  (Arch.  13),  they  put  their  own 

name  to  those  papers. 
cur  mihi  te  offers,  ac  meis  coramodis  officis  et  obstas  (Ros.  Am.  38), 

why  do  you  offer  yourself  to  me,  and  then  hinder  and  withstand  my 

advantage  ? 

Remark.  —  When  a  verb  with  ^preposition  in  English  is  represented 
by  one  of  these  compounds,  it  is  commonly  followed  by  the  Dative,  as 
in  the  above  examples.  If,  however,  the  compound  represents  a  verb 
qualified  by  an  adverb,  it  retains  its  original  construction :  as,  convocat 
suos  (see  also  237.  d  and  225.  b). 

*  Many  take  also  the  Accusat  ve,  being  originally  transitive. 


Dative  with  Compounds.  159 

a.  Some  compounds  of  ad,  ante,  ob,  with  a  few  others,  acquire 
a  transitive  meaning,  and  take  the  accusative  :  ^  as, 

nos  oppugnat  (Fam.  i.  i),  he  opposes  us. 

quis  audeat  bene  comitatum  aggredi,  who  would  dare  encounter  a  man 

well  attended  ? 
munus  obire  (Lael.  2),  to  attend  to  a  duty. 

b.  The  adjective  obvius  —  also  the  adverb  obviam  —  with  a  verb 
takes  the  dative  :  as, 

si  ille  obvius  ei  futurus  non  erat  (Mil.  18),  if  he  was  not  intending  t( 

get  in  his  way. 
mihi  obviam  venisti  (Fam.  ii.  16),  j/^«  came  to  meet  me. 

229.  Many  verbs  of  taking  away  and  the  like  take 
the  dative  (especially  of  persons)  instead  of  the  ablative 
of  separation  :  ^  as, 

mulieri  anulum  detraxit,  he  took  a  ring  from  the  woman. 

bona  mihi  abstulisti,  you  have  robbed  me  of  my  gains. 

vitam  adulescentibus  vis  aufert  (C.  M.  19),  violence  deprives  young  men 

oflife. 
nihil  enim  tibi  detraxit  senectus  (id.  i),  for  age  has  robbed  you  c^ 

nothing. 
nee  mihi  hunc  errorem  extorqueri  volo  (id.  23),  nor  do  1  wish  this 

error  forested  from  me. 

a.  The  distinct  idea  of  place,  —  and,  in  general,  names  of 
things,  —  require  the  ablative  with  a  preposition  :   as, 

ilium  ex  periculo  eripuit  (B.  G.  iv.  12),  he  dragged  him  out  of  danger. 

b.  Sometimes  the  dative  of  a  person  and  the  ablative  with  a 

preposition  are  used  in  the  same  construction  :  as, 

victoriam  eripi  sibi  e  manibus,  that  victory  should  be  wrested  from  his 
hands  (compare  243.  b). 

c.  The  dative  is  often  used  by  the  poets  in  constructions  which 
would  strictly  require  another  case  with  a  preposition  :  as, 

differt  sermoni  (Hor.  S.  i.  4,  48),  differs  from  prose  [a  sermone]. 
tibi  certet  (Eel.  v.  %), vies  ivith  you  [tecum]. 

lateri  abdidit  ensem  (^n.  ii.  553),  buried  the  sword  in  his  side  [in  latere], 
solstitium  pecori  defendite  (Eel.  vii.  47),  keep  the  noontide  from  the 
flock  [a  pecore]. 

Note. — The  poets  regard  the  action  as  done  to  the  thing  affected, 
for  greater  vividness  of  expression. 

1  Such  verbs  are  aggredior,  adeo,  antecedo,  anteeo,  antegredior,  convenio^ 
ineo,  obeoy  cffendo,  oppugno,  subeo^  praeceao. 

2  The  action  is  here  more  vividly  represented  as  done  t»  the  object  affected  by  it. 


i6o  Syntax:  The  Dative. 

230.  Verbs  governing  the  dative  can  be  used  in  the 
Passive  only  impersonally :  as, 

cui   parci  potuit  (Liv.  xxi.  12),  who  could  be  spared? 

non  modo  non  invidetur  illi  aetati  verum  etiam  favetur  (Off.  ii.  13), 

that  age  [youth]  is  not  only  not  envied,  but  is  even  favored. 
tempori  serviendum  est  (Fam.  ix.  7),  we  must  serve  the  time. 

Dative  of  Possession. 

^    231.  The  dative  is  used  with  esse  and  similar  words 
"^  to  denote  possession  or  other  special  relation  :  as, 

homini  cum  deo  similitudo  est  (Cic),  man  has  a  likeness  to  God. 
quibus  opes  nuUae  sunt  (Sail.),  [those]  who  have  no  wealth, 
est  mihi  domi  pater  (Virg.),  I  have  a  father  at  home. 
Remark.  —  The  Genitive  or  a  possessive  with  esse  emphasizes 
the  possessor;  the  Dative,  the  fact  of  possessiofi :  as,  liber  est 
meus,    the  book  is  mine  (and  no  one's  else)  ;  est  mihi  liber,  / 
have  a  book  (among  other  things).      This  is  the  usual  form  to 
denote  ^\vcv^\^  possession ;  habeo,  ///^t//?,  generally  signifying  Z/^/dT, 
often  with  some  secondary  meaning :  as, 

legionem  quam  secum  habebat  (B.  G.  i.  8),  the  legion  which  he  kept 

with  him. 
domitas  habere  Hbidines  (De  Or.),  to  keep  the  passions  under  control. 

a.  Compounds  of  esse  take  the  dative  (excepting  abesse  and 

posse)  :  as, 

deest  mihi  pecunia,  I  lack  money. 

b.  After  noipien  est,  and  similar  expressions,  the  name  is  usually 
put  in  the  dative  by  a  kind  of  apposition  with  iht  person :  as, 

puero  ab  inopia  Egerio  inditum  nomen  (Liv.  i.  34),  the  boy  was  called 

Egerius  from  his  poverty. 
cui  African©  fuit  cognomen  (id.  xxv.  2),  whose  surname  was  Africanus. 

c.  The    name  may  be   in  apposition  with  nomen ;   or  in  the 
genitive :  as, 

cui  nomen  Arethusa  (Verr.  iv.  52),  [a  fount]  called  Arethusa. 
nomen  Mercuri  est  mihi  (Plaut.  Am.),  my  name  is  Mercury. 
puero  nomen  est  Marcus  (Marco,  Marci),  the  boy's  name  is  Marcus. 

Dative  of  Agrency. 

232.  The  dative  is  used  with  the  Gerundive,  to  denote 
the  person  on  whom  the  necessity  rests  :  as, 

haec  vobis  provincia  est  defendenda  (Man.  6),  this  province  is  for  you 

to  defond  [to  be  defended  by  you], 
mihi  est  pugnandum,  T  have  to  fight  [i.e.,  the  need  of  fighting  is  mine ; 

compare  mihi  est  li6or}. 


r  '       * 

Dative  of  Service.  i6i 

a.  The  dative  of  the  agent  is  often  used  -aSx^x  perfect  participles^ 
especially  when  used  in  an  adjective  sense,  —  rarely  after  other 
parts  of  the  verb  :  as,' 

mihi  deliberatum  et  constitutum  est  (Rull.  i.  8),  I  have  deliberated  and 
resolved. 

b.  By  the  poets  and  later  writers  it  is  used  in  this  way  after 
almost  any  passive  verb  :  as, 

neque  cernitur  ulli  {^n.  i.  440),  nor  is  seen  by  any. 

felix  est  dicta  sorori  (Fast,  iii.),  she  was  called  happy  by  her  sister. 

c.  The  dative  of  the  person  who  sees  or  thinks  is  regularly  used 
after  the  passive  of  video  (usually  to  be  rendered  seeni)  :  as, 

videtur  mihi,  it  seems  (or  seems  good)  to  me. 

Dative  of  Service. 

233.  The  dative  is  used  to  denote  the  Purpose  or 
End  :  often  with  another  dative  of  the  person  or  thing 
affected :  ^  as, 

rei  publicae  cladi  sunt  (Jug.  85),  they  are  ruin  to  the  State. 

magno  usui  nostris  fuit  (B.  G.  iv.  25),  it  was  of  great  service   to  our 

men. 
tertiam  aciem  nostris  subsidio  misit  (id.  i.  52),  he  sent  the  third  line  as 

a  relief  to  our  men. 
omnia  deerant  quae  ad  reficiendas  naves   erant  usui  (id.   iv,   29),  all 

things  were  wanting  which  were  of  use  for  repairing  the  ships. 

Dative  with  Adjectives. 

234.  The  dative  is  used  after  Adjectives  or  Adverbs, 
to  denote  that  to  which  the  given  quality  is  directed,  or 
for  which  it  exists. 

^  The  following  characteristics  have  been  observed  in  the  use  of  the  Predicate 
Dative  (dative  of  Service)  :  i.  the  noun  is  semi-abstract ;  2.  it  is  so  used  only  in  the 
singular;  3.  it  is  "  used  predicatively  "  ;  4.  generally  with  ^J5^ ;  5.  rarely  qualified 
by  an  adjective  ;  6.  or  by  a  genitive  or  a  phrase  ;  7.  but  few  nouns  are  used  in  this 
way  ;  8.  the  use  and  its  limitations  appear  to  be  governed  by  custom,  not  by  any 
principle.  It  is  common  with  about  4o^nouns,  and  is  found  with  185  in  all.  Of 
these  dono.1  muneri,  vitio,  are  not  used  with  esse.  The  verbs  with  which  it  exists 
are  habeo^  do,  dico,  duco,  pono,  verto,  with  esse  and  its  equivalents,  as  feri,  &c. 
The  nouns  most  commonly  found  in  this  construction  are,  adjumento,  auxilio,  cordi, 
crimini,  curae,  damno,  decori,  dedecori,  dona,  exemplo,  exitio,  fraudi  (damage), 
honori,  indicia,  invidiae,  impedimenta,  laudi,  ludibrio,  malo,  morae,  adio,  oneri, 
ornamento,  praedae,  praesidio,  prabro,  pudori,  receptut,  remedia,  saluti,  subsi- 
dio, terrori,  vitia,  voluptati,    usui.  —  Roby's  Latin  Grammar,  ii.  xxxvii,  seq. 


1 62  Syntax:   The  Dative, 

a.  The  dative  is  used  with  words  of  Fitness,  Nearness,  Like- 
ness, Service,  Inclination,  and  their  opposites  ;  also,  in  poetic  and 
colloquial  use,  with  idem  :  as, 

nihil  est  tarn  naturae  aptum  (Lael.  5),  nothing  is  so  fitted  to  nature. 
nihil  difficile  amanti  puto  (Or.  10),  I  think  nothing  hard  to  a  lover. 
pompae  quam  pugnae  aptius  (id.  yt^)^  fitter  for  a  procession  than  for 

battle. 
rebus  ipsis  par  et  aequalis  oratio  (id.  36),  a  speech  equal  and  level  with 

the  subject. 
in  eadem  arma  nobis  (Cic),  to  the  same  arms  with  us. 

b.  Adjectives  of  Fitness  or  Use  take  oftener  the  accusative 
with  ad  to  denote  the  end  ;  but  regularly  the  dative  of  persons  :  as, 

nobis  utile  est  ad  hanc  rem,  //  is  of  use  to  us  for  this  thing. 
aptus  ad  rem  militarem,y?/y^r  a  soldier^ s  duty. 
locus  ad  insidias  aptior  (Mil.  20),  a  place  fitter  for  lying  in  wait. 
castris  idoneum  locum  deligit  (B.  G.    i.  49),  he  selects  a  suitable  camp- 
ing-grotmd. 

c.  Adjectives  and  nouns  of  Inclination  may  take  the  accusative 
with  in  or  erga  :  as, 

comis  in  uxorem  (Hor.  Ep.  ii.  2),  kind  to  his  wife. 
divina  bonitas  erga  homines  (N.  D.  ii.  23),  the  divine  goodness  towards 
men. 

d.  Many  adjectives  especially  when  used  as  nouns  may  take  also 
the  possessive  genitive.' 

Remark.  —  After  similis,  like^  with  early  writers,  the  genitive 
is  more  usual ;  Cicero  uses  the  genitive  of  living  objects^  and  the 
genitive  or  dative  of  things. 

e.  The  adjectives  propior^  proximus  (sometimes),  and  the  ad- 
verbs propius^  proxivte  (more  commonly),  take  the  accusative,  as  if 
prepositions,  like  prope  (see  91). 

Dative  of  Reference. 

235.  The  dative  is  often  required  not  by  any  particular 
word,  but  by  the  general  meaning  of  the  sentence 
{dativus  commodi  aut  htcommodi)  \  as, 

tibi  aras  (PI.  Merc.  i.  \\  you  plough  for  yottrself 
res  tuas  tibi  habe  (formula  of  divorce),  keep  your  goods  to  yourself . 
laudavit  mihi  fratrem,  he  praised  my  brother  (out  of  regard  for  me ; 
laudavit fratrem  meum  would  imply  no  such  motive]. 

*  Such  are  aequalis,  affiniSy  amicus,  cognatus,  communis,  con  sanguineus, 
dispar,  familiar  is,  inimicus,  necessarius,  par,  peculiaris,  proprius,  similis,  super- 
ties  (compare  1S8,  218.  </). 


Dative  of  Reference.  163 

Remark.  —  In  these  cases  there  may  be  only  one  word  in  the  sen- 
tence ;  but  they  are  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  the  meaning  of  the 
verb  is  complete  without  the  dative, — which  denotes  that  to  or  for 
which  any  thing  is  done,  —  while  in  the  preceding  uses  it  is  more  closely 
connected  with  some  particular  word. 

a.  The  dative  of  reference  is  often  used  to  qualify  a  whole  idea, 
instead  of  the  possessive  genitive  modifying  a  single  word  :  as, 

iter  Poenis  vel  corporibus  suis  obstruere  (Cat.  M.  20),  to  block  the 
march  of  the  Carthaginians  even  zvith  their  own  bodies. 

se  in  conspectum  nautis  dedit  ( Verr.  vi.  53),  he  put  himself  in  sight  o) 
the  sailors. 

versatur  mihi  ante  oculos  (id.  47,)  it  comes  before  my  eyes. 

b.  The  dative  of  reference  is  used,  in  relations  of  Direction 
answering  to  the  English  as  you  go  in  (on  the  right,  in  the  front, 
&c.) :  as, 

oppidum  primum  Thessaliae  venientibus  ab  Epiro  (B.  C.  iii.  80),  the 

first  town  of  Thessaly  as  you  come  from  Epirus. 
laeva  parte  sinum  intrantibus  (Liv.  xxxvi.  26),  on  the  left  as  you  sail 
up.  the  gulf. 

c.  The  dative  of  reference  is  used,  rarely  (by  a  Greek  idiom), 
with  the  participle  of  volo  or  nolo,   and  similar  words  :  as, 

ut  quibusque  bellum  invitis  aut  volentibus  erat  (Tac.  Ann.  i.  59),  as 

each  might  receive  the  war  reluctantly  or  gladly. 
ut  militibus  labos  volentibus  esset  (Jug.  100),  that  the  soldiers  might 
assume  the  task  willingly. 

Ethical  Dative. 

236.  The  dative  of  the  personal  pronouns  is  used  to 
show  a  certain  interest  felt  by  the  person  referred  to  ^ 
{dativus  ethicus) :  as, 

quid  mihi  Celsus  agit  (Hor.),  pray  what  is  Celsus  doing? 
suo  sibi  servit  patri  (PI.  Capt.  Prol.),  he  serves  his  own  father. 
at  tibi  repente  venit  mihi  Cominius  (Fam.  ix.  2),  but,  look  you,  of  a  sud- 
den comes  to  me  Cominius. 
hem  tibi  talentum  argenti  (PI.  Trin.  v.  i),  hark  ye,  a  talent  of  silver. 
quid  tibi  vis  ?  what  would  you  have  ? 

Remark.  —  To  express  for  —  meaning  instead  of,  in  defence 
of  in  behalf  of —  the  ablative  with  pro  must  be  used  :  as, 
pro  patria  mori  (Hor.  Od.  iii.  2),  to  die  for  one's  country. 
pro  rege,  lege,  grege  (prov.),/^r  king,  law,  people. 
ego  ibo  pro  te  (PL  Most.),  I  will  go  instead  of  you. 

'  Compare  "I'll  rhyme  you  so  eight  years  together."  —  As  You  Like  It. 


3-  Idiomatic  Uses  : 


164  Syntax:  The  Accusative. 

ACCUSATIVE. 

237.  The  Accusative  is  the  case  of  the  Direct  Object 
of  a  transitive  verb.  It  denotes  {a)  that  which  is  directly 
affected,  or  {b)  that  which  is  caused  or  produced  by  the 
action  of  the  verb  :  as, 

Brutus  Caesarem  interfecit,  Brutus  killed  Casar, 
aedem  facere,  to  make  a  temple. 
proelimn  pugusure,  tojight  a  battle. 
The  special  uses  of  the  Accusative  are  the  following :  — 

[■  a.  Directly  affected  by  the  Action. 

1.  Primary  Object  :  ^  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^^.^^  (  Thing  produced 

t  (  Cognate  Accusative, 

r  a.  Predicate  Accusative  (of  Naming,  &c.). 

2.  Secondary  Object  :<    b.  of  Asking  or  Teaching  (the  Thing). 

\  c.  of  Concealing  (the  Person). 

a.  Adverbial. 

b.  of  Specification  (Greek  Accusative). 

c.  of  Extent  and  Duration. 

d.  of  Exclamation. 

e.  Subject  of  Infinitive  (Indirect  Discourse). 

a.  The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice  becomes 
its  Subject  in  the  passive,  and  is  put  in  the  nominative  :  as, 

Caesar  a  Bruto  interfectus  est,  CcBsar  was  killed  by  Brutus. 
domus  aedificatur,  the  house  is  building  {being  built). 

b.  Many  verbs  which  express  Feeling,  apparently  intransitive, 
take  an  accusative  in  Latin  and  are  used  in  the  passive  :  as, 

meum  casum  luctumque  doluerunt  (Sest.  69),  they  grieved  [at]  my 

calamity  and  sorrow. 
ridetur  ab  omni  conventu  (Hor.  S.  i.  7,  22),  he  is  laughed  [at]  by  the 

whole  assembly. 

c.  Verbs  of  taste,  smell,  and  the  like  take  an  accusative  of  the 

quality :  as, 

vinum  redolens  (Cic),  smelling  of  wine. 

herbam  mella  sapiunt  (Plin.),  the  honey  tastes  of  grass. 

d.  Verbs  of  motion,  compounds  of  circum  and  trans,  and  a  few 
others,  frequently  become  transitive,  and  take  the  accusative :  as, 

mortem  obire,  to  die. 

consulatum  ineunt  (Livy  iii.  4),  they  assume  the  consulship. 
neminem  conveni  (Fam.  ix.  14),  I  met  no  one. 
si  insulam  adisset  (B.  G.  iv.  20),  if  he  should  go  to  the  island. 
cives  qui  circumstant  senatum  (Cat.  i.  8),  the  citizens  who  throng  about 
the  senate. 


Cognate  Accusative ;    Two  Accusatives.  165 

e.  The  accusative  is  used  after  the  Impersonals  decet^  delectat, 
juvat,  oportet,  fallit,  fugit^  praeterit :  as, 

te  non  praeterit  (Fam.  i.  8),  it  does  not  escape  your  notice. 
[For  Accusative  and  Genitive  after  Impersonals,  see  221.  ^.] 
Cog^nate  Accusative. 

238.  A  neuter  verb  often  takes  an  accusative  of  kin- 
dred meaning,  usually  modified  by  an  adjective  or  in 
some  other  manner:  as, 

vitam  tutiorem  vivere  (Hor.),  to  live  a  safer  life. 
aetatem  tertiam  vivebat,   he  was  living  his  third  age. 
coire  societatem,  to  [go  together  and]  fortn  an  alliance. 

a.  The  cognate  accusative  is  found  in  such  phrases  as  vincere 
judicium,  to  gain  one's  case  at  court,  and  more  loosely  in  poetic 

'       use :  as, 

saltare  Cyclopa  (Hor.  Sat.  v.  \)^to  dance  the  Cyclops. 
Bacchanalia  vivere  (Juv.  ii.  2),  to  live  in  revels. 

b.  A  neuter  accusative  of  a  pronoun  or  pronominal  adjective  is 
often  used  with  a  neuter  verb  when  a  noun  would  be  in  some  other 
construction :  as, 

hoc  te  moneo,  I  warn  you  of  this  (hujus  rei). 
id  laetor,  /  rejoice  at  that  (ea  re). 

Two  Accusatives. 

7      239.  Several  classes  of  verbs,  besides  the  direct  ob- 
ject, take  another  accusative,  either  as  a  predicate  or  as 
a  secondary  object. 
J        a.  The  accusative  is  used  in  a  predicate  after  verbs  of  Naming, 
/     Choosing,  &c.  (see  example  under  185). 

^         b.  A  second  accusative  is  sometimes  used  after  transitive  verbs 
^     compounded  with  prepositions  :  as, 

Hiberum  copias  trajecit  (Liv.xxi.  2^^  ^  he  threrv  his  forces  across  the  Ebro. 
But  with  these  verbs  the  preposition  is  oftener  repeated. 
,       c.  Verbs  of  Asking  and  Teaching  govern  two  accusatives,*  one 
/  of  a  Person  and  the  other  of  a  Thing :  as, 
hoc  vos  doceo  (Cic),  I  teach  you  this. 
hoc  te  vehementer  rogo  (id.),  this  I  urgently  beg  of  you. 

'  Either  of  these  may  be  regarded  as  the  direct  object  of  the  action,  and  may 
accordingly  be  changed  to  the  nominative  as  subject  of  the  verb  in  the  Passive. 


1 66  Syntax:   The  Accusative. 

Remark.  —  The  accusative  of  the  Thing  may  remain  with  the  pas- 
sive of  verbs  of  teaching,  also  after  rogo :  as,  sententiam  rogatus  est. 
But  generally  with  verbs  of  asking,  the  Thing  becomes  subject-nomina- 
tive, while  the  Person  asked  is  put   in  the  ablative  with  a  preposition. 

The  preposition  is  always  used  with  the  noun  designating  the  person 
after  peto,  postulo  (ab),  or  quaero  (ex,  ab,  de)  :  as, 

pacem  ab  Romanis  petere  (Caes.),  io  beg  peace  of  the  Romans. 

d.  The  transitive  celo,  conceal,  and  the  usually  neuter  lateo, 
lie  hid,  take  the  accusative  of  the  person  :  as, 

hoc  me  celavit,  he  hid  this  from  me. 

latet  plerosque  (Plin.),  //  is  hid  from  most. 

Idiomatic  Uses. 

y  240.  The  Accusative  has  the  following  special  idio- 
matic uses :  — 

a.  A  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective  is  used  adverbially  in  the 
accusative    (cf.  238.  ^)  :  ^  as, 

quid  moror,  why  do  I  delay  ? 

dulce  loquentem  (Hor.  Od.  i.  22),  sweetly  speaking. 
acerba  tuens  (^n.  ix.  793),  looking  cruelly. 
torvum  clamat  (id.  vii.  599),  he  cries  harshly. 

b.  The  accusative  is  found  in  a  few  adverbial  phmseff  •  as, 
id  temporis,  at  that  time. 

meam  vicem,  on  my  part. 
quod  si,  but  {,as  to  which)  if. 

c.  The  so-called  synecdochical  or  Greek  accusative  is  used  by 
the  poets  to  denote  the  part  affected  :  as, 

caput  nectentur  (Virg.),  their  head  shall  be  bound  [they  shall  be  bound 
about  the  head]. 

Note.  —  The  part  is  strictly  in  apposition  with  the  whole,  and  re- 
mains (as  in  the  example)  after  the  passive.  Many  similar  expressions 
may  be  regarded  as  the  accusative  after  passive  verbs  used  refUxively :  as, 

inutile  ferrum  cingitur  (Virg.),  he  girds  on  the  useless  steel. 

d.  The  accusative  is  used  in  Exclamations :  as, 

O  fortunatam  rempublicam  (Cic),  O  fortunate  republic t 
O  me  miserum  !  Ah  wretched  me  I 

e.  Duration  of  Time  and  extent  of  Space  are  expressed  by  the 
accusative  (see  256,  257).- 

*  This  usage  is  strictly  the  Cognate  Accusative. 


Vocative;   Ablative.  16; 

f.  The  subject  of  the  Infinitive  Mood  is  in  the  accusative 
This  is  especially  frequent  after  words  of  Knowing,  Thinking, 
TelHng,  and  Perceiving  {verba  sentiendi  et  declarandi)} 

[For  the  Accusative  with  Prepositions,  see  page  loi.] 

VOCATIVE. 

241.  The  Vocative  is  the  form  of  direct  Address  :  as, 

Tiberine  pater,  te  sancte  precor  (Liv.  ii.  103),  O  father  Tiber  l 

thee^  holy  one,  I  pray. 
Note,  —  The  Vocative  can  hardly  be  called  a  case,  as  it  properly  has 
no  case  termination,  and  forms  no  part  of  the  sentence. 

a.  Sometimes  the  nominative  of  a  noun  is  used  instead  of  the 
vocative,  in  apposition  with  the  subject  of  the  Imperative  :  as, 

audi  tu,  populus  Albanus  (Liv.  i.  24),  hear,  thou  people  of  Alba. 

b.  Sometimes  the  vocative  of  an  adjective  is  used  instead  of  the 
nominative,  where  the  verb  is  of  the  second  person  :  as 

censorem  trabeate  salutas  (Pers.),  robed  you  salute  the  censor. 

c.  The  nominative  is  used  in  exclamations  :  as, 
En  dextra  fidesque!  (^n.  iv.  597). 

ABLATIVE. 

242.  The  Ablative  is  used  to  denote  the  relations  ex-^ 
pressed  in  English  by  the  prepositions   from,  in,  at, 
WITH,  by:  as, 

liberare  metu,  to  deliver  from  fear. 

caecus  avaritia,  blind  with  avarice. 

occisus  gladio,  slain  by  the  sword. 

excultus  doctrina,  trained  in  learning. 

hoc  ipso  tempore,  at  this  very  time. 
Note.  —  The  Ablative  /^rw  contains  three  distinct  cases, — the 
Ablative  proper,  expressing  the  relation  from  ;  the  Locative,  in  ;  and  the 
Instrumental,  with  or  by.  This  confusion  has  arisen  partly  from  pho- 
netic decay,  by  which  the  cases  have  become  identical  in  form,  and 
partly  from  the  development  by  which  they  have  approached  one 
another  in  meaning.  Compare,  for  the  first,  the  like  forms  of  the  dative 
and  ablative  plural,  the  old  dative  in  e  of  the  fifth  declension,  and  the 


*  In  its  origin,  ^he  accusative  in  this  construction  is  strictly  the  Object  of  the 
leading  verb. 


1 68  Syntax:   The  Ablative. 

loss  of  the  original  d  in  the  ablative  ;  and,  for  the  second,  the  phrases 
a  parte  dextra,  on  the  right ;  quam  ob  causam,  from  which  cause ; 
ad  faniam,  at  (in  consequence  of)  the  report. 

The  relation  of  from  includes  separation^  source,  cause,  agent,  and 
comparison  ;  that  of  WITH  or  by,  accompaniment ^  instrument,  means,  man- 
ner, quality,  ?ind  price ;  that  of  IN  or  AT,  place,  time,  circumstafue.  It  is 
probable  that,  originally,  the  idea  of  accompaniment,  had  a  separate  case, 
which  became  confounded  with  the  Instrumental  before  Latin  was 
separated  from  the  kindred  tongues.  The  following  are  the  uses  of  the 
Latin  Ablative,  classed  according  to  the  original  cases  which  have  been 
combined  in  it  :  — 


/ 


I.  Ablative  (/r^w/) : 


1.  Instrumental  {with)  : 


3.  Locative  [in,  on,  at) 


a.  of  Separation,  Privation,  and  Want. 

b.  of  Source  (participles  of  origin,  &c.) 

c.  of  Cause  [gaudeo,  digitus,  &c.). 

d.  of  Agent(with  ab  after  Passives). 

e.  of  Comparison  (than). 

a.  of  Means  and  Instrument. 

b.  of  Accompaniment  (with  cum). 

c.  of  Object  of  the  Deponents  utor,  &c. 

d.  of  Degree  of  Difference. 

e.  of  Quality  (with  Adjectives). 

f.  of  Price  and  Exchange. 

g.  of  Specification. 

a.  of  Place  7uhere  (commonly  with  In). 

b.  of  Idiomatic  Expressions. 

c.  of  Time  and  Circumstance. 

d.  Ablative  Absolute. 


Ablative  of  Separation. 

243.  Words   signifying   Separation   or   Privation   are 
followed  by  the  ablative,  with  or  without  a  preposition.  ^ 

a.  Verbs  meaning  lo  remove,  set  free,  be  absent,  deprive,  and 
want,  require  the  ablative  :  as, 

oculis  se  privavit  (Fin.  v.  29),  he  deprived  himself  of  eyes. 

legibus  solutus,  relieved  from  the  obligation  of  laws. 

omni  Gallia  interdicit  Romanos  (B.  G.  i.  46),  he  [Ariovistus]  bars  the 

Romans  from  the  ivhole  of  Gaul. 
ei  aqua  et  igni  interdicitur  (Veil.  Pat.  ii.  45),  he  is  debarred  the  use  of 

fire  and  water. 
voluptatibus  carere  (Cat.  M.  3),  to  lack  enjoyments. 
non  egco  medicina  (Lael.  3),  /  want  no  physic. 

magno  mc  metu  liberabis  (Cat.  i.  '^),  you  will  relieve  me  of  great  fear, 
Ephorus  calcaribus  eget  (Quint.),  Ephorus  needs  the  spur. 
levamur  superstitione,  liberamur  mortis  metu  (Fin.  i.  19),  we  are  re- 

lia<cdfrom  superstition,  freed  from  fear  of  death. 
consilio  ct  auctoritatc  orbari  (Cat.  M.  6),  to  be  bereft  of  counsel  and 

authority^ 


Ablative  of  Separation  and   Want.  169 

b.  Compounds  of  a,  ab,  de,  ex,  take  the  ablative  when  used 
figuratively ;  but  in  their  literal  sense  {separation  or  motion)  they 
usually  require  a  preposition  (compare  229)  :  as, 

conatu  desistere  (B.  G.  i.  8),  to  desist  from  the  attempt, 

desine  communibus  locis  (Acad.  ii.  25),  quit  commonplaces. 

abire  magistratu,  to  leave  one's  office. 

abstinere  injuria,  to  refrain  from  wrong. 

aberrare  a  proposito  (Cic),  to  wander  from  the  point. 

de  provincia  decedere  (Verr,  ii.  46),  to  withdraw  from  one's  province. 

ab  jure  abire  (id.),  to  go  outside  of  the  law. 

ex  civitate  excessere  (B.  G.  vi.  8),  they  departed  from  the  State. 

finibus  suis  excesserant  (id.  iv.  18),  they  had  left  their  own  territory. 

c.  The  ablative  without  a  preposition  is  used  after  verbs  to 
denote  \hQ  place  from  which  in  some  idiomatic  expressions  :  as, 

cessisset  patria  (Mil.  25),  he  would  have  left  his  country. 

patria  pellere,  to  drive  out  of  the  country. 

manu  mittere,  to  emancipate  [let  go  from  the  hand]. 

d.  Adjectives  denoting  Freedom  and  Want  are  followed  by  the 
ablative  :  as, 

urbs  nuda  praesidio  (Att.  vii.  13),  the  city  naked  of  defence. 

immunis  militia  (Liv.  i.  43),  free  of  military  service. 

plebs  orba  tribunis  (Leg.  iii.  3),  the  people  deprived  of  tribunes. 

e.  Opus  and  usus  signifying  Need  are  followed  by  the  ablative ; 
often  by  the  ablative  of  the  perfect  participle,  with  or  without  a 
noun  :  as, 

magistratibus  opus  est  (Leg.  iii.  2),  there  is  need  of  magistrates. 
properato  opus  esset  (Mil.  19),  there  were  need  of  haste. 
Remark.  —  The  nominative   is  often  used,  with  opus  in  the 
predicate  :  as, 

dux  nobis  et  auctor  opus  est  (Fam.  ii.  6),  we  need  a  chief  and  adviser. 

si  quid  ipsi  opus  esset  (B.  G.  i.  34),  if  he  waitted  anything. 

f  Egeo  and  indigeo  are  often  followed  by  the  genitive  (223)  :  as, 

ne  quis  auxilii  egeat  (B.  G.  vi.  11),  lest  any  require  aid. 

quae  ad  consolandum  majoris  ingenii  et  ad  ferendum  singularis  virtutis 

indigent  (Fam.  vi.  4),  [sorrows]  which  for  comfort  need  more  ability, 

and  for  endurance  unusual  courage. 

Remark.  —  With  all  words  of  separation  and  want,  the  poets 
frequently,  by  a  Greek  idiom,  use  the  Genitive  :  as, 
abstineto  irarum  (Hor.  Od.  iii.  27),  abstain  from  wrath. 
operum  solutis  (id.  i-j),  free  from  toils. 


/ 


/ 


I/O  Syntax:   The  Ablative, 

Source   and    Material. 

244.  The  ablative  is  used  to  denote  the  Source  from 
which  anything  is  derived,  or  the  Material  of  which  it 
consists  (compare  214.  e). 

a.  Participles  denoting  Birth  or  Origin  are  followed  by  the 
ablative.     Such  are  natus,  satus,  editus,  genitus,  ortus  :  as, 

Jove  natus  at  Mala  (N.  D.  iii.  22),  sort  of  Jupiter  and  Maia. 
edite  regibus  (Hor.  Od.  i.  i),  descendant  of  kijigs. 
quo  sanguine  cretus  (^En.  ii.  74),  borfi  of  what  blood. 
Remark.  —  A  preposition   (ab,  de,  ex)    is  usually  expressed 
with  the  name  of  the  Mother,  and  with  that  of  distant  ancestors. 

b.  Rarely,  the  place  of  Birth  is  expressed  by  the  ablative  :  as, 

desideravit  C.  Felginatem  Placentia,  A.  Cranium  Puteolis  (B.  C.  iii. 
^\),  he  lost  C.  F.  of  Placentia,  A.  G.  of  Futeoli. 

c.  The  ablative  is  used  with  constare  ^  and  similar  verbs,  to 
denote  Material ;  but  with  other  verbs  a  preposition  is  generally 
used,  except  by  the  poets  :  as, 

animo  constamus  et  corpora  (Fin.  iv.  8),  we  consist  of  soul  and  body. 

d.  The  ablative  of  Material  is  used  with ya^^r^,y?m,  and  similar 
words  in  the  sense  of  do  with,  become  of:  as, 

quid  hoc  homina  facias  (Varr.  ii.  16),  what  are  yoti  going  to  do  with 

this  man  ? 
quid  Tulliola  maa  fiat  (Fam.  xiv.  4),  zvhat  will  become  of  my  dtar 

Tullia  ? 
quid  te  futurum  ast  (Varr.  ii.  64),  ivhat  will  become  of  you  ? 


/ 


Ablative  of  Cause. 

245.  The  ablative   (with  or  without  a  preposition)  is 
used  to  express  the  Cause.^ 

nimio  gaudio  paane  desipiebam  (Fam.  i.  13),  /  was  almost  wild  with 

excess  of  Joy. 
nagligentia  plectimur  (Lael.  22),  we  are  chastised fcr  negligence. 
gubarnatoris  ars  utilitate   non  arta  laudatur  (Fam.  i.  13),  the  piloCs 
skill  is  praised  for  its  service,  not  its  skill. 

'  The  ablative  with  consistere  and  contineri  is  Locative  in  origin. 
I  3  The  cause,  in  the  Ablative,  is  considered  as  source,  as  is  shown  by  the  use  of 
^b,  de^  ex  ;  but  when  the  accusative  with  ad,  ob  is  used,  the  idea  of  cause 
arises  from  nearness.  Hut  occasionally  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  between  cause 
and  means  (which  is  instrumental)  or  circumstance  (either  locative  or  instru- 
mental). 


Ablative  of  Cause  and  Agent.  171 

a.  The  ablative  is  used  with  the  adjectives  dignus,  indignus, 
and  with  the  verbs  dignor,  laboro  (also  with  ex),  exsilio,  exsulto^ 
iriumpho,  lacrimo,  ardeo. 

vir  patre,  avo,  majoribus  suis  dignissimus  (Phil.  iii.  10),  a  man  most 

worthy  of  his  father,  grandfather,  and  ancestors. 
doleo  te  aliis  maHs  laborare  (Fam.  iv.  3),   /  am  sorry  that  you  suffer 

with  other  ills. 
ex  acre  alieno  laborare  (B.  C.  iii.  22),  to  labor  under  debt. 
exsultare  laetitia  ac  triumphare  gaudio  coepit  (Clu.  5),  she  began  to 

exult  in  gladness,  and  triumph  in  joy. 

b.  The  motive  which  influences  the  mind  of  the  person  acting 
is  expressed  by  the  ablative  alone  ;  the  object  exciting  the  emotion 
often  by  ob  or  propter  with  the  accusative  :  as, 

non  ob  praedam  aut  spoliandi  cupidine  (Tac.  H.  i.  63),  not  for  booty 
or  through  lust  of  plunder. 

c.  The  ablatives  causa  and  gratia,  for  the  sake  of  are  used 
with  a  genitive  preceding,  or  with  a  possessive  in  agreement :  as, 

ea  causa,  on  account  of  this  ;  mea  causa,  yi?^  my  sake. 

et  mea  et  reipublicae  causa, /(^r  my  own  sake  and  the  republic'' s. 

sui  purgandi  gratia, /<7r  the  sake  of  clearing  themselves. 

With  possessives  the  use  of  gratia  in  this  sense  is  rare. 

Ablative  of  Agent. 

246.  The  voluntary  agent  after  a  passive  verb  is  put 
in  the  ablative  with  ab:  as, 

laudatur  ab  his,  culpatur  ab  illis  (Hor.  Sat.  i.  2),  he  is  praised  by  these, 

blamed  by  those. 
ab  animo  tuo  quidquid  agitur  id  agitur  a  te  (Tusc.  i.  22),  whatever  is 

done  by  your  soul  is  done  by  yourself. 

a.  The  ablative  of  the  agent  with  ab  is  sometimes  used  after 
neuter  verbs  having  a  passive  sense  :  as, 

perire  ab  hoste,  to  be  slain  by  an  enemy. 

b.  The  agent,  considered  as  instrument  or  means,  is  expressed 
by  per  with  the  accusative,  or  by  opera  with  a  genitive  or  possess- 
ive.    Thus  — 

Caesar  certior  factus  est  a  legatis,  Ccesar  was  informed  [in  person]  by 
the  ambassadors. 

Caesar  certior  factus  est  per  legatos,  Ccesar  was  informed  by  ambassa- 
dors [i.e.  by  means  of  ambassadors]. 

Caesar  certior  factus  est  litteris,  Ccesar  was  informed  by  letter  [per  lit- 
teras  would  mean  by  official  documents  used  expressly  as  means  of 
information]. 

So  per  vim,  as  well  as  vi  (B.  G.  i.  14),  by  force. 


1/2  Syntax:   The  Ablative. 

Ablative  of  Comparison. 

247.  The  Comparative  degree  is  followed  by  the  abla- 
tive ^  (signifying  than)  :  as, 

Cicerone  eloquentior,  more  eloquent  than  Cicero. 

quid  nobis  duobus  laboriosius  est  (Mil.  2),  what  more  burdened  with 
toil  than  we  two  ? 

a.  Qnam  with  the  same  case  as  the  thing  compared  may  also 
be  used,  and  must  regularly  be  used  when  the  adjective  is  not 
either  nominative  or  accusative  (see  208.  a).  But  the  poetd  some- 
times use  the  ablative  even  then  :  as, 

pane  egeo  jam  mellitis  potiore  placentis  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  10),  I  want  bread 
better  than  honey  cakes. 

Remark.  —  Quam  is  never  used  in  this  construction  with  rela^ 
tive  pronouns  having  a  definite  antecedent. 

b.  The  idiomatic  ablatives  opinione^  spe,  solito,  dicto^  aequo^ 
credibili,  TvcAjusto^  are  used  instead  of  a  clause  :  as, 

celerius  opinione  (Fam.  iv.  2-^,  faster  than  one  would  think. 
amnis  solito  citatior  (Liv.  xxii.  19),  a  stream  swifter  than  its  wont. 

c.  The  comparatives  plus,  minus.,  amplius,  longius,  are  often 
used  with  words  of  measure  or  number  without  affecting  their 
case  (being  in  a  kind  of  apposition)  :  as, 

plus  septingenti  capti  (Liv.  xli.  12),  more  than  700  were  taken, 
plus  tertia  parte  interfecta    (Caes.)  more  than  a  third  part  being  slain. 
spatium  non  amplius  sexcentorum  pedum  (id. ),  a  space  of  not  more 
than  600  feet. 

d.  Alius  is  followed  by  the  ablative  in  poetic  and  colloquial 
use  : '  as, 

nee  quicquam  aliud  libertate  communi  (Fam.  xi.  2),  nothing  else  than 

the  common  liberty. 
alius  Lysippo  (Hor.),  another  than  Lysippus. 

[For  Ablative  of  Difference  with  Comparatives,  see  250.] 

*  Here  the  object  of  comparison  is  the  starting-point  from  which  we  reckon,  as 
itself  possessing  the  quality  in  some  degree.  That  this  is  the  tn>e  explanation  is 
shown  by  the  ablative  in  Sanskrit,  and  the  genitive  in  Greek. 

2  This  is  perhaps  in  imitation  of  the  Greek  ;  but  the  construction  is  found  also 
in  Sanskrit,  and  is  probably  original  :  as,  alium  sapiente  bonoque  (Hor.  Ep. 
i.  16).  Under  comparatives  probably  belong  the  adverbs  anted ^  antideS,  postiUd, 
posted^  praetereS,  though  these  may  be  accusative  neuter. 


Ablative  of  Means.  173 

Ablative  of  Means. 

248.  The  ablative  is  used  to  denote  Accompaniment, 
Manner,  Means,  or  Instrument :  as, 

vultu  Milonis  perterritus  (Mil.  15),  scared  by  the  face  of  Milo. 

probabilia  conjectura  sequens  (id.  9),  following  probabilities  by  con- 
jecture. 

Fauno  immolare  agna  (Hor.  Od-  i.  4),  to  sacrifice  to  Faiinus  with  a 
ewe  lamb. 

pol  pudere  quam  pigere  praestat  totidem  litteris  (Plaut.  Trin.  345), 
by  Pollux  better  shame  than  blame,  although  the  letters  count  the  sa?ne 
[lit.  with  as  many  letters]. 

Remark.  —  The  Ablative  of  Manner  commonly  takes  cum,  unless 
it  has  a  modifying  adjective.  But  words  of  manner,  modo,  ratione,  via, 
etc.,  with  certain  expressions  as  silejttio,  injuridy  —  hardly  ever  have  cu7n. 

a.  The  ablative  of  accompafmnent  regularly  takes  cum  (except 
sometimes  in  military  phrases,  and  a  few  isolated  expressions, 
especially  in  the  early  writers) :  as, 

cum  funditoribus   sagittariisque   flumen    transgressi    (B.  G.   ii.    19), 

having  crossed  the  river  with  the  slingers  and  archers. 
subsequebatur  omnibus  copiis  (ib.),  he  followed  close  with  all  his  forces. 
hoc  praesidio  profectus  est  (Verr,  ii.  34),  with  this  convoy  he  set  out. 

Remark.  —  Misceo  and  jungo,  with  their  compounds,  may  take  the 
ablative  of  accompaniment,  without  cum,  or  sometimes  the  Dative  :  as, 
fletum  cruori  miscuit  (Ov.),  humano  capiti  cervicem  equinam  jungere  (Hor.). 

b.  Words  of  Contention  require  cum,  but  often  take  the  dative 
in  poetry  :  as, 

armis  cum  hoste  certare  (Cic),  to fightwith  the  enemy  in  arms. 
est  mihi  tecum  certamen  (id.),  I  have  a  controversy  with  you. 
solus  tibi  certat  Amyntas  (Eel.  v.  8),  Amyntas  alone  vies  with  you. 

-     c.  The   ablative   of    Means    is    used   with    words   of    Filling, 
Abounding,  and  the  like  :  as, 

Deus  bonis  omnibus  explevit  mundum  (Univ.  3),  God  has  filled  the 

world  with  all  good  things . 
opimus  praeda  (Verr.  i.  50),  rich  with  spoil. 
vita  plena  et  conferta  voluptatibus  (Sest.  10),  a  life  full  and  croivded 

with  delight. 
Forum  Appi  differtum  nautis  (Hor.  Sat.  i.  5),  Forum  Appii  crammed 

with  bargemen. 

Remark.  —  These  verbs  and  adjectives  take  the  genitive  in  the  poets 
by  a  Greek  idiom ;  while  compleo,  impleo^  and  plenus  often  take  the 
genitive  in  prose. 


1/4  Syntax :  The  Ablative. 

249.  The  deponents  utor^  frtwr,  fungor,  potior ^  vescor^ 
with  several  of  their  compounds,  govern  the  ablative  :  as, 

utar  vestra  benignitate  (Cic),  I  will  avail  myself  of  your  kindness. 
Numidae   plerumque   lacte  et  ferina   carne   vescebantur   (Jug.  88), 

ty'ie  Numidians  fed  mostly  on  milk  and  game. 
sagacitate  canum   ad  utilitatem  nostram  abiitimur  (N.  D.  ii.  6o),  we 

take  advantage  of  the  sagacity  of  dogs  for  our  own  benefit. 

a.  Potior  also  takes  the  genitive,  as  always  in  the  phrase  potiri 
rerum,  to  get  the  power. 

b.  In  early  Latin,  these  verbs  are  often  found  as  transitive, 
t'ollowed  by  the  accusative. 

250.  The  ablative  is  used,  with  comparatives  and 
words  implying  comparison,  to  denote  the  Degree  of 
Difference :  as, 

duobus  millibus  plures,  2000  more  {more  numerous  by  2000). 
quinque  millibus  passuAim  distat  (Liv.),  //  ispve  miles  distant. 

Remark.  —  This  use  is  especially  frequent  with  the  ablatives 
quo  .  .  .  eoj  quanto  .  .  .  tanto  (see  106.  c)  :  as, 

quo  minus  cupiditatis  eo   plus   auctoritatis  (Liv.  xxiv.  28),  the  less 
greed  the  more  weight. 

N.  B.  — The  ablative  of  Comparison  and  the  ablative  of  Differ- 
ence, expressing  different  relations,  may  be  used  together  with  the 
same  adjective  :  as,  multo  divitior  Crasso,  much  richer  than 
Crassus. 

Ablative  of  Quality. 

251.  The  Ablative,  with  an  Adjective  or  limiting 
Genitive,  is  used  to  denote  quality  :  ^  as, 

aninio  meliore,  of  better  mind. 
more  hominum,  after  the  manner  of  men. 

non  quaero  quanta  memoria  fuisse  dicatur,  /  do  not  ask  haw  great  a 
memory  he  is  said  to  have  had. 

a.  The  Ablative  of  description  (quality)  is  oftener  used  when 
physical  characteristics  are  denoted ;  other  qualities  may  be  in  the 
genitive:  as, 

vuhu  sereno,  of  calm  face. 

capillo  sunt  promisso  (B.  G.  v.  14),  they  have  long  hanging  locks. 

*  Compare  Genitive  of  Quality  (215)  with  Note. 


Ablative  of  Price ;  Locative.  175 

Ablative  of  Price. 

252.  The  price  of  a  thing  (or  that  which  is  given  in 
exchange)  is  put  in  the  ablative :  as, 

agrum   vendidit  sestertium   sex  millibus,  he  sold  the  field  for  6000 

sesterces. 
exsilium  patria  sede  mutavit   (Q.  C.  iii.  8),  he  exchanged  his  native 

land  for  exile. 

Remark.  —  Either  the  thing  taken  or  given  may  be  in  the  ablative, 
and  the  other  in  the  accusative. 

a.  Certain  adjectives  of  Quantity  are  used  in  the  genitive  to 
denote  Indefinite  Value  (see  215.  c).  Such  genitives  are  magni, 
parvi,  tanti,  quanti,  piuris,  minoris :  as, 

est  mihi  tanti  (Cat.  ii.  7),  it  is  worth  my  while. 
mea  magni  interest,  /'/  is  of  great  consequence  to  me. 

b.  The  genitive  of  certain  nouns  is  used  in  the  same  way :  as, 
non  flocci  faciunt  (PI.  Trin.),  they  care  not  a  straw. 

The  genitives  so  used  are  nihili,  nothing;  assis,  a  farthing; 
flocci,  a  lock  of  wool.,  and  a  few  others. 

c.  Verbs  of  exchange  take  the  ablative  of  Price  with  or  without 
cum :  as, 

mortem  cum  vita  commutare  (Sulp.  ad  Cic),  to  exchange  life  for  death. 

d.  With  verbs  of  buying  and  selling,  the  ablative  of  Price 
{niagno^  &c.)  must  be  used,  except  the  following  genitives  :  tantiy 
quanti,  piuris,  minoris. 

Ablative  of  Specification. 

253.  The  ablative  denotes  that  in  respect  to  which 
anything  is  said  to  be  or  be  done,  or  in  accordance  with 
which  anything  happens  :  as, 

virtute  praecedunt  (B.  G.  i.  i),  they  excel  in  courage. 

claudus  altero  pede  (Nep.  Ages.),  lame  of  one  foot. 

lingua  haesitantes,  voce  absoni  (De  Or.  i.),  hesitating  in  speech,  harsh 

in  voice.     [So  m,ed  sententid,  ed  condicione,  and  the  like.] 
tanta  caritas  patriae  est,  ut  eam  non  sensu  nostro  sed  salute  ipsius 

metiamur  (Tusc.  i.  37),  such  is  oiir  love  of  country  that  we  measure. 

it  not  by  our  own  feeling,  but  by  her  own  welfare. 

liocative  Ablative. 

254.  The  locative  ablative  is  used  to  denote  the  place 
where  (usually  with  a  preposition),  and  the  time  when. 


176  Syntax:   The  Ablative. 

a.  The  ablative  of  the  place  where  is  retained  in  many  idio- 
matic expressions  (compare  259.  a)  :  as, 

pendemus  animis  (Tusc.  i.  40),  we  are  in  suspense  of  mind. 

socius  periculis  vobiscum  adero  (Jug.  85),  I  will  be  present  with  you 

a  companion  in  dangers. 
premit  altum  corde  dolorem  {Na\.  i.  209),  he  keeps  down  the  pain  deep 

in  his  heart. 

b.  The  following  verbs  are  followed  by  the  ablative  :  acquiesco, 
detector,  laetor,  gaudeo,  glorior,  nitor,  sto,  ?naneo,  Jido  {co7ifidd)^ 
consisto,  contineor, — with  the  verbals /r^/«i-,  contentus,  laetus  :  as, 

spe  niti  (Att.  iii,    9),  to  rely  on  hope. 

prudentia  fidens  (Off.  i.  33),  trusting  in  prudence. 

laetari  bonis   rebus  (Lael.  13),  to  rejoice  in  good  things. 

Remark.  —  The  above  verbs  sometimes  take  the  preposition  in. 

Ablative  Absolute. 

255.  A  noun  or  pronoun,  with  a  participle,'  is  put  in 
the  ablative,  to  define  the  Time  or  Circumstances  of  an 
action  :  as, 

vocatis  ad  se  undique  mercatoribus  (B.  G.  iv.  20),  having  called  to 

him  the  traders  from  all  quarters. 

a.  An  adjective,  or  another  noun,  may  take  the  place  of  the  par- 
ticiple :  ^  as, 

exigua  parte  aestatis  reliqua  (id.),  when  but  a  small  part  of  the  summer 
was  left. 

M.  Messala  et  M.  Pisone  consuHbus  (id.  i.  2),  in  the  consulship  of 
Messala  and  Piso. 

b.  Sometimes  a  participle  or  adjective  (under  the  construction 
of  the  Ablative  Absolute)  is  put  in  agreement  with  a  phrase  or 
clause,  or  is  used  adverbially  :  as, 

incerto  quid  peterent,  since  it  %vas  uncertain  zvhat  they  sought. 
consulto  et  cogitato  (Off.  i.  8),  on  purpose  and  with  reflection  [the 

mattb/  having  been  deliberated  ancf  thought  on], 
serene  (Liv.  xxxi.  12),  under  a  clear  sky. 

'  The  noun  is  originally  locative  denoting  circumstance^  considered  as  place 
or  time ;  then,  being  modified  by  a  participle,  it  becomes  fused  with  it  into  a 
single  idea,  equivalent  to  that  contained  in  a  subordinate  clause  (compare  ab  urbe 
Condita,  from  the  founding  of  the  city,  lit.  from  the  founded  city).  After  the 
construction  was  established,  other  ablatives  (of  cause,  instrument,  &c.),  were 
occasionally  used  in  the  same  way.  The  construction  was  so  developed  in  Latin, 
that  a  subordinate  clause  is  often  represented  by  it.  In  such  cases  the  noun  is 
equivalent  to  the  subject,  and  the  participle,  adjective,or  noun  to  the  Predicate,  and 
should  so  be  translated  (see  examples  on  the  next  page). 

*  The  participle  of  esse,  wanting  in  Latin,  would  be  used  in  Sanskrit  and  Greek. 


The  Ablative ;   Tirne  and  Place.  177 

P  Note.  —  As  the  Nominative  absolute  is  less  common  in  Eng- 

lish, a  change  of  form  is  generally  required  in  translation.  Thus 
the  present  participle  is  oftenest  to  be  rendered  by  a  relative  clause 
with  when  or  while;  and  the  perfect  passive  participle  by  the  per- 
fect active  participle  in  English.  These  changes  may  be  seen  in 
the  following  example  :  — 

**  At  illi,  iiitermisso  spatio,  impru-  **  But  they,  having  paused  a  space, 

dentibus  nostris,  atque  occupatis  in  while  our  men  were  unatvare  and 

munitione  castrorum,  subito  se  ex  busted  in  fortifying  the  camp,  sud- 

silvis  ejecerunt ;  impetu<\\xQ  in  eos  denly  threw  themselves  out  of  the 

facto,  qui  erant  in  statione  pro  cas-  woods  ;  then  mahing an  aUac^  upon 

tris  collocati,  acriter  pugnaverunt ;  those  who  were  on  guard  in  front 

duabusque  missis  subsidio  cohortibus  of  the  camp,  fought  fiercely ;  and, 

a  Caesare,  cum  hae  {perexiguo  in-  though  two  cohorts  had  been  sifit  to 

termisso  loci   spatio  inter   se)  con-  their  relief  by  Caesar,  after   these 

stitissent,     novo     genere     pugnae  had   taken   their   position   [leavi/ig 

perterritis  nostris,  per  medios  auda-  very  little  space  of  ground  between 

cissime    perruperunt,    seque    inde  ihexn),  as  our  men  were  alarmed  hy 

incolumes  receperunt."  —  C^sar,  the  strange  kind  of  fighting,  they 

B.  G.  V.  15.  dashed  most  daringly  through  the 

midst  of  them,  and  got  off  safe." 

[For  the  Ablative  with  Prepositions,  see  p.  loi.] 

TIME  AND   PLACE. 
1.  —  Time. 

^       256.  Time  when  (or  within  which)  is  put  in  the  Abla- 
,^    tive  ;  time  how  long  in  the  Accusative  :  ^  as, 

constituta  die,  on  the  set  day. 

quota  hora  ?  at  what  o'clock  ? 

tribus  proxumis  annis  (Jug.  ii),  within  the  last  three  years. 

dies  continuos  triginta,y^?'  a  month  together. 

a.  The  use  of  a  preposition  gives  greater  precision  and  clear- 
ness :  as, 

in  diebus  proximis  decem  (Sail.),  within  the  next  ten  days. 
ludi  per  decem  dies  (Cat.  iii.  8),  games  lasting  ten  days. 

b.  The  ablative  is  rarely  used  to  express  duration  of  time  :  as, 

milites  quinque  horis  proelium  sustinuerant  (B,  C.  i.  47),  the  men 
had  sustained  the  fight  five  hours.     [This  use  is  locative^ 

^  The  ablative  of  time  is  locative ;  the  accusative  is  the  same  as  that  of  extent  of 
space  (see  below,  259.  d). 


178  Syntax:    Time  and  Place. 

2.  —  Space. 

/         257.  Extent  of  space  is  put  in  the  Accusative  :^  as, 

fossas  quindecira  pedes  latas  (B.  G.  vii.  72),  trenches  \^  feet  broad. 

in  omni  vita  sua  quemque  a  recta  conscientia  transversum  unguem 
non  oportet  discedere  (quoted  in  Att.  xiii.  20),  in  all  one's  life,  one 
should  not  depart  a  naiPs  breadth  from  straightforward  conscience. 

a.  Measure  is  often  expressed  as  quality  by  the  Genitive 
(215.^):  as, 

vallo  pedum  duodecim  (B.  G.  ii.  30),  in  a  rampart  of  \z  feet  [in 
height]. 

b.  Distance  is  put  in  the  Accusative  (as  extent  of  space),  or  in 
the  Ablative  (as  degree  of  difference)  :  as, 

quinque  dierum  iter  abest2(Liv.  xxx.  29),  //  is  distant  five  days*  march, 
triginta  millibus  passuum  infra  eum  locum  (B.  G.  vi.  35),  thirty  miles 
below  that  place. 

S.  —  Plaoe. 

^  258.  To  express  relations  of  Place,  prepositions  are 
necessary,  except  with  the  names  of  Towns  and  small 
Islands  ;  except  also  with  domns,  rns,  and  a  few  other 
words  in  special  relations;^  except  also  in  Poetry. 

a.  The  name  of  the  place /r^;«  which  is  in  the  Ablative  :  as, 

Roma  profectus,  having  set  out  from  Rome.^ 
rure  reversus,  having  returned  from  the  country. 

b.  The  name  of  the  place  to  which  is  in  the  Accusative  :  as, 

Romam  rcdiit,  he  returned  to  Rome. 
rus  ibo,  I  shall  go  into  the  country. 

Remark.  — Tlie  old  construction  is  retained  in  the  phrases  exsequias 
ire,  infitias  ire,  pessum  ire,  pessum  dare,  venum  dare  (vendere),  venum  ire 
{veneo),  foras,  and  with  the  Supine  in  «»/,  and  in  poetry. 

1  This  accusative  is  the  object  through  or  ox>er  which  the  action  takes  place, 
and  is  kindred  with  the  accusative  of  the  end  of  motion,    *  From  Rome,  a  Roma. 

*  Originally  these  relations  were  expressed  with  all  words  by  the  cases  alone^  — 
the  Accusative  denoting  the  and  of  motion  as  in  a  certain  sense  the  object  of  the 
action  ;  and  the  Ablative  (in  its  proper  meaning  of  separation)  denoting  the  place 
from  which.  For  the  place  -where  there  was  a  special  case,  the  Locative,  the 
form  of  which  was  partially  retained  and  partially  merged  in  the  Ablative  (see  Note, 
p.  168).  The  Prepositions  (originally  Adverbs)  were  added  to  define  more  exactly 
the  direction  of  the  motion,  and  by  long  usage  at  length  became  necessary,  except 
in  the  cases  given  above.     <  To  be  absent  from  Rome,  Roma  aheKse 


Locative  Uses.  179 

c.  The  name  of  the  place  where  takes  the  Locative  form,  which 
in  the  first  and  second  declensions  singular  is  the  same  as  the 
Genitive  ;  in  the  plural,  and  in  the  third  declension,  the  same  as 
the  Dative  or  Ablative  :  as, 

Romae,  at  Rome.  Athenis,  at  Athens. 

Rhodi,  at  Rhodes.  Curibus,  at  Cures. 

Lanuvi,  at  Lanuvium.  Tiburi  or  Tibure,  at  Tibur. 

Remark.  —  The  names  of  small  islands,  as  Capreae,  Satnos,  Salamis, 
are  regularly  used  in  this  construction ;  sometimes  also  larger  distant 
islands,  which  might  be  thought  of  as  a  single  spot :  thus,  Cretae,  Cypri. 
But,  when  regarded  as  a  district  or  province,  the  name  of  a  large  island 
(like  Sicily)  always  requires  a  preposition,  like  names  of  countries.  So 
too  a  small  island,  when  thought  of  as  territory  :  as,  in  Ithaca  lepores 
illati  morhmtur  (Plin. :  cf.  256.  a). 

d.  The  words  domi  (rarely  domui),  at  homej  belli,  militiae 
(in  contrast  to  domi),  abroad.,  in  ?nilitary  service;  humi,  on  the 
ground;  ruri,  in  the  country ;  foris,  out-of-doors ;  terra  marique, 
by  land  and  sea^  are  used  like  nanies  of  towns,  without  a  preposi- 
tion ;  also  heri.,  vesperi,  infelici  arbori  (Liv.). 

e.  A  genitive  or  possessive  may  be  used  with  domus  in  this 
construction  ;  but,  when  it  is  modified  in  any  other  way,  a  preposi- 
tion is  generally  used :  as, 

domi  Caesaris,  at  C(ssar''s  house. 

domi  suae  vel  alienae,  at  his  owft  or  another'' s  house  (compare  184.  d). 

in  M.  Laecae  domum  (Cat.  i.  4),  to  Lceca's  house. 

f.  The  ablative  is  used  without  a  preposition  to  denote  iht  place 
where,  in  many  general  words  —  as  loco,  parte  —  regularly  ;  fre- 
quently with  nouns  when  qualified  by  adjectives  (regularly  where 
totus  is  used) ;  and  in  poetry  in  any  case  :  as, 

quibus  loco  positis  (De  Or.  iii.  38),  zuhen  these  are  set  in  position. 

qua  parte  victi  erant  (Att.  ix.  11),  on  the  side  where  they  were  beaten. 

exercitum  castris  continuit  (B.  G.  i.  48). 

media  urbe  (Liv.  i.  ^yZ),  in  the  midst  of  the  city. 

tota  Sicilia  (Verr.  iv.  23),  throughout  Sicily. 

litore  curvo  (Aen.  iii.  16),  on  the  bending  shore. 

Remark.  —  To  denote  the  neighborhood  of  a  place  {to,  from,  in  the 
neighborhood),  Prepositions  must  be  used. 

g.  The  way  by  which  is  put  in  the  Ablative  {oi  instrument)  :  as, 

via  breviore  equites  praemisi  (Fam.  x.  9),  7  sent  forward  the  cavalry 

by  a  shorter  road. 
Aegeo  mari  trajecit  (Liv.  xxxvii.  14),  he  crossed  by  way  ofthc/^gean  sea. 


i8o  Syntax :  Time  and  Place, 

Special  Uses. 

259.  The  following  special  uses  require  to  be  ob- 
served :  — 

a.  Many  expressions  have  in  Latin  the  construction  of  ti7ne 
when,  where  in  English  time  is  not  the  main  idea:  as, 

pugna  Cannensi  {or  apud  Cannas),  in  the  fight  at  Canna. 

ludis  Romanis,  at  the  Roman  games. 

omnibus  Gallicis  bellis,  in  all  the  wars  of  Gaul. 

b.  In  many  expressions  of  time,  the  accusative  with  ad,  in,  or 
cub,  is  used.     Such  are  the  following  :  — 

supplicatio  decreta  est  in  Kalendas  ]2in\x2iX\^^,  a  thanksgiving  was  voted 
for  the  1st  of  January. 

convenerunt  ad  diem,  they  assembled  at  the  [appointed]  day. 

ad  vesperum,  till  evening  ;  sub  vesperum,  towards  (about)  evening. 

sub  idem  tempus,  about  the  same  time. 

c.  Time  either  during  or  within  which  may  be  expressed  by  a 
noun  in  the  singular,  with  an  ordinal  numeral :  as, 

quinto  die,  within  {just)  four  days  (counting  both  ends,  see  376.  d). 
regnat  jam  sextum  annum,  he  has  reigned  going  on  six  years.    But  also, 
regnavit  jam  sex  annos,  he  has  already  reigned  for  six  years. 

d.  Distance  of  time  before  or  after  any  thing  is  variously  ex- 
pressed :  as, 

post  (ante)  tres  annos,  post  tertium  annum,  tres  post  annos,  tertium 
post  annum,  tribus  post  annis,  tertio  post  anno,  three  years  after. 

tribus  annis  (tertio  anno)  post  exsilium  (post  quam  ejectus  est),  three 
years  after  his  banishment. 

his  tribus  proximis  annis,  within  the  last  three  years. 

paucis  annis,  a  few  years  hence. 

abhinc  annos  tres  (tribus  annis),  ante  hos  tres  annos,  three  years  ago. 

triennium  est  cum  (tres  anni  sunt  cum),  //  is  three  years  since. 

e.  In  Dates,  the  phrase  ante  diem  (a.  d.)  with  an  ordinal,  or 
the  ordinal  alone,  is  followed  by  an  accusative,  like  a  preposition  ; 
and  the  phrase  itself  may  be  governed  by  a  preposition.  The  year 
is  expressed  by  the  names  of  the  Consuls  in  the  ablative  absolute, 
often  without  a  conjunction  :  as, 

is  dies  erat  a.  d.  quintum  kalendas  AprilTs  L.  Pisone  A.  Gabinio 
consulibus  (H.  G.  i.  6),  that  day  was  the  ^th  before  the  calends  of  April 
[March  28],  ///  the  consulship  of  Piso  and  Gabinius. 

in  a.  d.  V.  kal.  Nov.  (Cat.  i.  3),  to  the  ^th  day  before  the  calends  of  No- 
vember  [Oct.  28]. 

XV.  kal.  Sex  tills,  the  \^th  day  before  the  calends  of  August  (July  18). 
[Full  form,  quinto  decimo  die  ante  kalendas.] 


Use  of  Prepositions,  i8i 

f.  With  names  of  Places  (except  towns,  &c.,  see  258),  to  is 
expressed  by  in  or  ad  with  the  accusative  ;  in  by  in  or  ab  with 
the  ablative  ;  from  by  ab,  de,  ex,  with  the  ablative.  But  at, 
meaning  near  (not  /«),  is  expressed  with  all  names  of  place  by  ad 
or  apud,  with  the  accusative. 

g.  When  motion  to  a  place  is  implied  in  English,  though  not  ex- 
pressed, in  Latin,  the  accusative  must  be  used,  with  or  without  a 
l)i'cposition  :  as, 

conjurati  in  curiam  convenerunt,  the  conspirators  met  in  the  Senate 

house. 
concilium  domum  suam  convocavit,  he  called  a  council  at  his  own  house. 
h.  When  several  names  of  place  follow  a  verb  of  motion,  each 
must  be  under   its  own  construction.     Thus  — 

quadriduo  quo  haec  gesta  sunt  res  ad  Chrysogonum  in  castra  L.  Sul- 
lae  Volaterras  defertur  (Ros.  Am.  7),  within  a  few  days  after  this 
was  done,  the  matter  zvas  reported  to  Chrysogonus  in  SyllcCs  camp  AT 
Volaterrce. 

USE    OF    PREPOSITIONS. 

260.  Prepositions  are  used  with  either  the  Accusative 
or  Ablative.^ 

[For  the  list  of  Prepositions,  see  page  loi.] 

a.  Verbs  of  placing^  —  such  as  pono  and  its  compounds  (ex- 
cept impono),  loco,  statuo,  &c.,  —  though  implying  motion,  take 
in  Latin  the  construction  of  the  place  in  which :  as, 

qui  in  sede  ac  domo  collocavit  (Farad,  iii.  2),  who  put  one  into  his  place 
and  home. 

b.  Position  is  frequently  expressed  in  Latin  with  ab  (rarely  ex), 
properly  meaning  from  :^  as, 

a  tergo,  in  the  rear. 

a  parte  Pompeiana,  on  the  side  of  Pompey. 

a  sinistra  (compare  hinc,  on  this  side),  on  the  left  hand. 

ex  altera  parte,  on  the  other  side. 

magna  ex  parte,  in  a  great  degree. 

c.  When  it  means  concerning.,  super  takes  the  Ablative  ;  other- 
wise the  Accusative  (except  in  poetry)  :  as, 

hac  super  re  (Cic),  concerning  this  thing. 

super  culmina  tecti  {Mxi.  ii.  695),  above  the  house-top. 

^  The  force  lies  strictly  with  the  Case,  and  the  preposition  only  indicates  more 
clearly  direction  ox  place. 

^  Apparently  the  direction  whence  the  sensual  impression  comes. 


1 82  Syntax:    Use  of  Prepositions. 

d.  After  subter,  the  Accusative  is  used,  except  sometimes  in 
poetry :  as, 

subter  togam  (Liv.),  under  his  mantle. 
subter  litore  (Catull.),  below  the  shore. 

e.  Tenus  (which  follows  its  noun)  regularly  takes  the  Ablative, 
sometimes  the  Genitive :  as, 

Tauro  tenus  (Dei.  13),  as  far  as  Taurus. 
capulo  tenus  (Aen.  v.  55),  up  to  the  hilt. 
Corcyrae  tenus  (Liv.  xxv.  24),  as  far  as  Corcyra. 

Note. — Tenus  is  found  especially  with  the  feminine  of  the 
adjective  pronouns,  in  an  adverbial  sense :    as, 

hactenus,  hitherto  ;  quatenus,  so  far  as,  &c. 

261.  Many  words  may  be  construed  either  as  Preposi- 
tions or  as  Adverbs  :  as, 

a.  The  adverbs  pridie^  postridie,  propius,  proxime,  usque  — 
also  (less  frequently)  the  adjectives  propior  and  proximus  —  may 
be  followed  by  the  Accusative  :  as, 

pridie  Nonas  Junias  (Cic),  the  day  before  the  Nones  of  June  (Jun.  4). 
postridie  ludos  (id.),  the  day  after  the  games  (or  genitive  :  see  214.^). 
terminos  usque  Libyae  (Just.),  to  the  bounds  of  Libya  (a  late  use), 
ipse  propior  montem  suos  collocat  (Sail.  Jug.  49),  he  stations  his  men 

nearer  the  hill  (used  also  with  the  genitive  or  dative,  or  with  ab). 
proxime  Pompeium  sedebam  (Att.  i.  14),  I  sat  next  Pomfey  (used  also 

with  the  dative,  or  with  ab). 

b.  The  adverbs  pala?n,  procul,  simul^  may  take  the  Abla- 
tive :  as, 

rem  creditor!  palam  populo  solvit  (Liv.  vi.  14),  he  paid  the  debt  in  the 
presence  of  the  people.     [This  use  is  comparatively  late.] 

haud  procul  castris  in  modum  municipii  exstructa  (Tac.  IL  iv.  22),  not 
far  from  the  camp,  built  up  like  a  town.  [But  procul  is  regularly  fol- 
lowed by  ab  in  classic  use.] 

simul  nobis  habitat  barbarus  (Ov.  Tr.  v.  10,  29),  close  among  us  dwells 
the  barbarian.     [But  simul  regularly  takes  cum.] 

c.  The  adverb  clam  is  found  with  the  Accusative  or  Ablative, 
rarely  with  the  Genitive  or  Dative:  as, 

clam  matrem  suam  (Plaut.),  unknown  to  his  mother. 

clam  mihi  (id.),  in  secret  front  me. 

clam  patris  (id.),  in  secret  from  his  father. 

clam  vobis  (Caes.  B.  C.  ii.  32),  without  your  knowledge. 


Prepositions.  183 

d.  Prepositions  often  retain  their  original  meaning  as  Adverbs. 
This  is  especially  the  case  with  ante  and  post^  in  relations  of 
Time ;  adversus,  contra,  circiter,  propej  and,  in  general,  those 
ending  in  a.  Clam  and  versus  are  often  excluded  from  the 
list  of  Prepositions. 

[For  the  use  of  Prepositions  in  Composition,  see  170,  p.  116  ] 

262.  Some  prepositions  or  adverbs  which  imply  Com- 
parison are  followed,  Uke  comparatives,  by  qtiam, — 
several  words,  or  even  clauses,  sometimes  coming  be- 
tween :  as, 

neque  ante  dimisit  eum  quam  fidem  dedit  (Liv.  xxxix.  10),  nor  did> 

he  let  him  go  until  he  gave  a  pledge. 
post  diem  tertium  quam  dixerat  (Man.  i6),  the  third  day  after  he  said 

it.     [So  octavo  mense  quam,  Liv.  xxi.  15. J 

Note.  —  Such  words  are  ante,  prius,  post,  pridie,  postridiej 
also  magis  and  prae  in  compounds :  as, 

Cato  ipse  jam  servire  quam  pugnare  mavult  ( Att.  vii.  15),  Cato  himself 
by  this  time  would  rather  be  a  slave  than  fight. 

si  jam  principatum  Galliae  obtinere  non  possint,  Gallorum  quam  Ro- 
manorum  imperia  praeferre  (B.  G.  i.  17),  if  they  can  no  longer  hold 
the  chief  rank  in  Gaid,  they  prefer  the  ride  of  Gauls  to  that  of  Romans. 

263.  The  ablative,  with  a  or  ab,  is  regularly  used 
after  passive  verbs  to  denote  the  Agent,  if  a  person,  or 
if  spoken  of  as  a  person :  as, 

jussus  a  patre,  bidden  by  his  father. 

Remark.  —  The  ablative  of  the  agent  (which  requires  the 
preposition)  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  ablative  of 
instrument,  which  stands  by  itself  :  as, 

occisus  gladio,  slain  by  a  sword. 

occisus  ab  hoste,  slain  by  an  enemy. 

[For  the  Dative  of  the  Agent,  with  the  Gerundive,  see  232.] 

Note.  —  The  following  prepositions  sometimes  follow  their 
nouns  :  — ad,  citra,  circa,  contra,  de,  e  (ex),  inter,  juxta,  penes, 
propter,  ultra,  tenus,  and  occasionally  others  :  as, 

[usus]  quern  penes  arbitrium  est  et  jus  et  norma  loquendi  (Hor.  A.  P. 
72),  custom,  under  whose  control  is  the  choice,  right,  and  rule  of  speech. 

cujus  a  me  corpus  est  crematum,  quod  contra  decuit  ab  illo  meum 
(C.  M.  23),  whose  body  I  burned  [on  the  funeral  pile],  while  on  the 
contrary  (lit.  contrary  to  which)  mine  shotdd  have  been  by  him. 


184  Syntax:   The   Verb. 


Chapter  III.  —  Syntax  of  the    Verb, 

1.  — Moods  and  Tenses, 

Note.  —  The  syntax  of  the  Verb  relates  chiefly  to  the  use  of  the 
Moods  (expressing  the  manner  in  which  the  action  is  conceived)  and 
the  Tenses  (expressing  the  time  of  the  action).  There  is  no  difference 
in  origin  between  mood  and  tense.  The  moods,  except  the  Infinitive, 
are  only  specialized  tenses ;  and  hence  the  uses  of  mood  and  tense 
frequently  cross  each  other.  Thus  the  tenses  sometimes  have  modal 
significations  (compare  indicative  in  apodosis,  see  311.  r;  future  for 
imperative,  see  269./)  ;  and  the  moods  express  time  (compare  subjunctive 
in  future  conditions,  and  notice  the  want  of  a  future  subjunctive). 

The  original  language,  besides  the  imperative  mood,  had  two  distinct 
forms  with  what  we  call  modal  signification  :  the  Subjunctive,  expressing 
an  action  willed  or  vividly  conceived ;  and  the  Optative,  expressing  an 
action  wished  for  or  vaguely  conceived.  Of  these,  the  Subjunctive  was 
developed  from  a  Present  tense,  by  which  an  action  continued  in  present 
time  was  represented  as  Future  :  compare  in  English,  the  army  marches 
to-morrow.  Such  an  action  came  to  be  conceived  on  the  one  hand  as 
Command  :  compare  the  military  order,  the  regiment  will  advance  ;  and 
in  the  other  as  a  Possibility  or  a  mere  Conception  :  compare  anybody 
will  understand  that. 

The  Optative  has  had  a  similar  development  from  a  tense-form 
compounded  with  ya,  to  go.  But  it  is  probable  that  it  originally  had  the 
signification  of  a  Past  tense  :  compare  the  English  should  and  would. 
At  any  rate,  the  optative  has,  in  the  same  way  as  the  subjunctive, 
acquired  the  two  meanings  of  Conception  and  Command.  It  must  not 
be  supposed,  however,  that  in  any  given  construction  either  of  the 
moods  was  used  because  it  denoted  a  conception  or  possibility ;  but 
each  construction  has  had  its  own  line  of  development  from  more 
tangible  forms  of  thought  to  more  vague  and  ideal.  Thus  in  English 
the  expression  I  would  do  this  has  come  to  be  almost  equivalent  to  a 
mild  command  ;  while  by  analysis  it  is  seen  to  be  the  apodosis  of  a 
condition  contrary  to  fact :  if  I  were  you,  &c.  By  a  still  further 
analysis,  /  would  go  is  seen  to  have  meant,  originally,  /  should  have 
wished  to  gOy  or  /  did  wish. 

In  Latin,  these  two  moods  have  become  confounded  in  form  and  mean- 
ing in  the  Present  Subjunctive  ;  and  new  tense-forms  of  the  subjunctive 
have  been  produced  by  composition, •  to  which  the  original  as  well  as 
derived  meanings  of  these  moods  have  become  attached  (see  265).  All 
the  independent  uses  of  the  subjunctive  are  thus  to  be  accounted  for. 

'  JPor  the  signification  of  these  tense  endings,  see  page  63,  Note  x. 


Moods ;   The  Indicative. 


i8s 


The  dependent  uses  of  the  subjunctive  have  arisen  from  its  use  in 
one  of  these  independent  senses, — at  first  co-ordinately  with  a  main 
statement  [parataxis),  afterwards  in  subordinate  relations  {syntaxis). 
In  time,  the  second  has  become  so  closely  connected  in  thought  with 
the  first,  that  the  two  have  become  one  compound  statement ;  the 
original  meaning  of  the  mood  has  disappeared,  and  a  new  meaning  has 
arisen  by  implication  :  as,  tolle  hanc  opinionem,  luctum  sustuleris  (remove 
this  notion,  you  will  have  done  away  with  grief:  i.  e.  if  you  remcrve, 
&c  ) ;  or,  misit  legates  qui  dicerent  (i  e.  who  would  say  in  a  supposed  case). 

The  Infinitive  is  originally  a  verbal  noun,  modifying  a  verb  like 
other  nouns ;  volo  videre,  lit.  "  I  wish  for  seeing  :  "  compare  English 
7uhat  went  ye  out  for  to  see  ?  But  in  Latin  it  has  been  surprisingly  devel- 
oped, so  as  to  have  forms  for  tense,  and  some  proper  modal  character- 
istics, and  to  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  other  moods. 

The  other  noun  and  adjective  forms  of  the  verb  have  been  developed 
in  various  special  directions,  which  are  treated  under  their  respective 
heads  below.  The  several  verbal  constructions  proper  are  the  follow- 
ing :  — 

1.  Indicative  :  Direct  Assertion  or  Question  ;  Absolute  Time. 

a.  Independent:    Wish,  Exhortation,  Command,  Ques- 
tion. 

'  Purpose  or  Result  (with  ut,  ne). 
Characteristic  (Relative  Clause). 

2.  Subjunctive  :  \  Relative  Time  (with  cum). 

Conditions    \  ^"^f  ^  (primary  tenses). 

I  Contrary  to  Fact. 
Intermediate  (Indirect  Discourse). 
Indirect  Questions  or  Commands. 


b.  Dependent 
(Chap.  V.) 


3.  Imperative 


4.  Infinitive: 


{! 


Direct  Commands  (often  subjunctive). 
Statutes,  Laws  and  Wills  (Future). 
Prohibitions  (early  or  poetic  use). 

a.  Subject  of  esse  and  Impersonal  verbs. 

b.  Object     I  Complementary  Infinitive. 

I  Indirect  Discourse  (with  subject-accusative^. 

(  Purpose  (poetic  or  Greek  use). 

c.  Idiomatic  Uses    -j  Exclamation  (with  subject-accus.). 

1  Historical  Infinitive. 


MOODS. 

I.  — THE   INDICATIVE. 

264.  The  Indicative  is  the  mood  of  direct  assertions 
or  questions  when  there  is  no  modification  of  the  verbal 
idea  except  that  of  time. 

a.  The  tenses  of  the  Indicative  denote  Absolute  Time ;  thai 
lis,  present,  pajst,  or  future,  with  rjeference  to  the  speaker. 


1 86  Syntax  of  Moods. 

b.  The  indicative  is  sometimes  used  where  the  English  idiom 
would  suggest  the  subjunctive,  chiefly  in  conditional  sentences 
(compare  307.  b^  c)  :  as, 

longum  est,  itrvould  be  tedious  \if^  &c.]. 
satius  erat,  //  would  have  been  better  [if,  &c.]. 
persequi  possum,  /  might  follow  up  [in  detail]. 

c.  The  Future  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  for  the  Imperative 
(see  269./). 

d.  The  indicative  is  used  in  some  kinds  of  Conditions  (see 
306,  308). 

e.  The  place  of  the  indicative  in  narration  is  sometimes  supplied 
by  the  Infinitive  (see  275). 

/.  In  Indirect  Discourse  (see  Chap.  V.),  a  narrative  clause  takes 
the  Infinitive. 

II.  — THE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 
General  Use. 

265.  The  Subjunctive  in  general  expresses  the  verbal 
idea  with  some  modification  ^  such  as  is  expressed  in 
English  by  potential  auxiliaries,  by  the  Infinitive,  or  by 
the  rare  Subjunctive. 

a.  The  subjunctive  is  used  Independently  to  express  — 

1.  An  Exhortation,  Concession,  or  Command  {Hortatory)  \ 

2.  A  Wish  {Optative)  ; 

3.  A  Question  of  doubt  or  deliberation  {Dubitative). 

These  (with  the  exception  of  some  forms  of  Dubitative  Sub- 
junctive) are  closely  akin  to  one  another,  and  are  different  phases 
of  the  same  use. 

Remark.  —  In  the  conclusion  {Apodosis)  of  Conditional  Sen- 
tences, the  Subjunctive  is  grammatically  independent,  though 
logically  it  depends  on  a  Condition  expressed  or  implied.  The 
so-called  Potential  Subjunctive  comes  under  this  head  (see  311. «). 

'  These  modifications,  however,  are  of  various  kinds,  each  of  which  has  had  its 
own  special  development  (compare  introfluctory  Note,  p.  184).  The  Stibjimclive  in 
I-itln  has  besides  m.iny  idiomatic  uses  (see  clauses  of  Result  and  Relative  Time), 
where  we  do  not  modify  the  verbal  idea  at  all,  but  express  it  directly ;  but  in 
these  cases  the  Latin  merely  takes  a  different  view  of  the  action,  and  has  developed 
its  construction  differently  from  English. 


Moods:    The  Subjunctive,  187 

b.  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  Dependent  Clauses  to  express  — 

1.  Purpose  or  Result  (/^^««/ or  Consecutive)  \ 

2.  Relative  Time  {Temporal)  ; 

3.  Characteristic  ; 

4.  Indirect  Question ; 

5.  Condition  :   Future  or  Contrary  to  Fact. 

c.  The  subjunctive  is  also  used  with  Particles  of  Comparison, 
and  in  Subordinate  Clauses  of  Indirect  Discourse. 

Hortatory. 

266.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  the  Present  —  less 
commonly  in  the  Perfect  —  to  express  an  Exhortation,  a 
Concession,  or  a  Command  :  as, 

hos  latrones  interficiamus  (B.  G.  vii.  58),  let  us  kill  these  robbers. 
caveant  intemperantiam,  meminerint  verecundiae  (Off.  i.  34),  let  them 

shun  excess  and  cherish  modesty. 
Epicurus  hoc  viderit  (Acad.  ii.  7),  let  Epicurus  look  to  this. 

Note.  —  The  Perfect  represents  an  action  as  complete  in  the  future ; 
but  in  most  cases  it  can  hardly  be  distinguished  from  the  Present. 

a^  The  Second  Person  is  used  only  of  an  indefinite  subject^ 
except  in  prohibition,  in  early  Latin,  and  in  poetry  (cf.  269.  b)  :  as, 

injurias  fortunae,  quas  ferre  nequeas,  defugiendo   relinquas  (Tusc. 

v.  41),  the  wrongs  of  for  tune ^  which  you  cannot  bear,  you  may  leave 

behind  by  flight. 
nihil  ignoveris  (Mur.  t^i), pardon  nothing. 

b.  In  Prohibitions,  addressed  to  a  definite  person,  the  perfect  is 
more  common  than  the  present  (compare  269.  a)  :  as, 

hoc  facito  :  hoc  ne  feceris  (Div.  ii.  61),  thou  shall  do  this ;  thou  shall 
not  do  that. 

nee  mihi  illud  dixeris  (Fin.  i.  7),  do  not  say  that  to  me. 

c.  The  subjunctive  is  used  —  sometimes  with  ut,  quamvis, 
quamlibet,  and  similar  words  —  to  express  a  Concession  :  ^  as, 

nemo  is  unquam  fuit :  ne  fuerit  (Or.  29),  there  never  was  such  a  one 

[you  will  say] ;  granted. 
quamvis  comis  in  amicitiis  tuendis  fuerit  (Fin.  ii.  25),  amiable  as  he 

may  have  been  in  keeping  his  friendships. 

\  '  In  this  iise,  the  Present  refers  to  future  or  indefinite  time  :  the  Imperfect  to 

present  or  past  time,  — the  concession  being  impHedly  untrue  ;  the  Perfect  to  past 
time  or  completed  future  time ;  the  Pluperfect  to  completed  action  in  past  time 
(usually  untrue). 


1 88  Syntax  of  Moods. 

ne  sit  summum  malum  dolor,  malum  certe  est  (Tusc.  ii.  5),  granted 

that  pain  is  not  the  greatest  evil,  at  least  it  is  an  evil. 
fuerit  aliis  :  tibi  quando  esse  coepit  (Verr.  i.  41),  suppose  he  was  [so] 

to  others,  when  did  he  begin  to  be  to  you  ? 
ut  rationem  Plato  nullam  afferret  (Tusc.  i.  21),  though  Plato  adduced  no 

reasons. 

quamvis  scelerati  illi  fuissent  (de  Or.  i.  53),  however  guilty  they  might 
have  been. 

Remark.  — Concessions  with  si  and  its  compounds  belong  to  Prota- 
sis (see  204)  J  with  licet,  to  Substantive  Clauses  (see  p.  225). 

d.  The  subjunctive  is  used  —  sometimes  with  modo,  modo  ne, 
tantum,  tantum  ne,  or  ne  alone  —  to  denote  a  Proviso  :  as, 

valetudo  modo  bona  sit  (Brut.  16),  if  only  the  health  be  good. 

modo  ne  sit  ex  pecudum  genere  (Off.  i.  30),  provided  only  he  be  not  of 

brutish  stock. 
manent  ingenia  senibus,  modo  permaneat  studium  et  industria  (Cat. 

M.  7),  old  men  retain  their  mind  if  they  only  retain  their  zeal  and 

diligence. 

e.  The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  of  the  hortatory  subjunctive 
denote  an  obligation  in  past  time.,  —  the  latter  more  clearly  repre- 
senting the  time  for  the  action  as  past :  as, 

moreretur,  inquies  (Rab.  Post.  10),  he  should  have  died  you  will  say. 
ne  poposcisses  (Att.  ii.  \),yoii  should  not  have  asked. 
potius  diceret  (Off.  iii.  22),  he  should  rather  have  said. 
saltem  aliquid  de  pondere  detraxisset  (Fin.  iv.  20),  at  least  he  should 
have  taken  something  from  the  weight. 

Remark.  —  This  use  of  the  subjunctive  is  carefully  to  be  distinguished 
from  its  use  in  Apodosis  (Potential),  as  is  indicated  by  the  translation, 
should  instead  of  would. 

Optatlye. 

267.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  a  Wish, — 
the  present,  a  wish  conceived  2iS  possible  ;  the  imperfect, 
an  unaccomplished  one  in  the  present ;  the  pluperfect, 
one  unaccomplished  in  the  past:  as, 

ita  vivam  (Att.  v.  15),  so  may  I  live  (as  true  as  I  live]. 

ne  vivam  si  scio  (id.  iv.  16),  I  wish  I  may  not  live  if  T  know. 

di  te  perduint  (Deiot.),  the  gods  confound  thee  ! 

valeant,  valeant,  cives  mei  ;  valeant,  sint  incolumes  (Mil.  34),  fare- 
well [he  says],  my  fellow-citizens  ;  may  they  be  secure  from  harm. 

di  facerent  sine  patre  forem  (Ov.  Met.  viii.  72),  would  that  the  gods 
allowed  me  to  be  without  a  father  I 


Moods:    The  Subjunctive.  189 

Note.  —  The  subjunctive  of  Wish  without  a  particle  is  hardly  found 
in  the  imperfect  or  pluperfect  except  by  sequence  of  tenses  in  Indirect 
Discourse  :  as, 

ac  vcnerata  Ceres  ita  culmo  surgeret  alto  (Hor.  S.  ii.  2,  124),  and 
Ceres  worshipped  [with  libations]  that  so  she  might  rise  with  tall  stalk. 

a.  The  Perfect  in  this  use  is  antiquated :  as, 

male  di  tibi  faxint  (Plant.  Cure.  131),  may  the  gods  do  thee  a  mischief. 

b.  The  particles  uti  (ut),  utinam,  O  si/  often  precede  the  sub 
junctive  of  Wish  :  as, 

falsus  utinam  vates  sim  (Liv.  xxi.),  /  wish  I  may  be  a  false  prophet. 
utinam  P.  Clodius  viveret  (Mil.  38),  would  that  Clodius  were  now  alive. 
utinam  me  mortuum  vidisses  (Q.  Fr.  i.  3),  would  you  had  seen  me  dead. 
ut  pereat  positum  rubigine   telum  (Hor.  Sat.  ii.   i),  may  the  weapon 
unused  perish  with  rust. 

c.  Velim  and  vellem,^  also  their  compounds,  with  a  subjunctive 
or  infinitive,  are  often  equivalent  to  a  proper  optative  subjunctive  : 
as, 

de  Menedemo  vellem  verum  fuisset,  de  regina  velim  verum  sit  (Att. 

iv.  16),  about  Memdemus  I  wish  it  had  been  true  ;  about  the  queen  I  hope 

it  may  be. 
nollem  accidisset  tempus  (Fam.  iii.  10),  I  wish  the  time  never  had  come. 
[For  Concessive  Subjunctive.,  see  p.  187  ;  for  Potential  Subjunc- 
tive^ see  p.  223.] 

Dubitative. 

268.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  questions  implying 
doubt,  indignation,  or  an  impossibility  of  the  thing  being 
done  :  as, 

quid  hoc  homine  facias  ?  quod  supplicium  dignum  libidini  ejus  inve- 
nias  (Verr.  ii.  16),  what  are  you  to  do  with  this  man?  what  fit  pen- 
alty can  you  devise  for  his  wantonness  ? 

quis  enim  celaverit  ignem  (Ov.  Her.  xv.  7),  who  could  conceal  the  flame  ? 

an  ego  non  venirem  (Phil.  ii.  2),  what,  should  I  not  have  come? 

quid  dicerem  (Att.  vi.  3),  what  was  I  to  say  ? 

mihi  umquam  bonorum  praesidium  defuturum  putarem  (Mil.  34),  could 
I  think  that  the  defence  of  good  men  would  ever  fail  me  ? 

Remark.  —  This  use  is  apparently  derived  from  the  hortatory  subjunc- 
tive :  quid  faciamus  =  faciamus  [aliquid] — quid?  Once  established,  it 
is  readily  transferred  to  the  past:  quid faciam?  quid facerem?  Some 
of  the  uses,  however,  cannot  be  distinguished  from  Apodosis  (cf.  305). 

1  In  this  use,  the  particle  has  no  effect  on  the  grammatical  construction,  except 
that  the  clause  with  O  si  is  probably  a  Protasis.     See  312.  Note. 

2  These  are  strictly  Apodoses,  the  thing  wished  being  in  a  dependent  clause, 
and  the  Protasis  omitted. 


7 


190  Syntax  of  Moods. 

III.— THE    IMPERATIVE. 

269.  The  Imperative  is  used  in  Commands  ;  also,  by 
early  writers  and  poets,  in  Prohibitions  :  as, 

consulite  vobis,  prospicite  patriae,  conservate  vos  (Cat.  iv.  2),  have 

care  for  yourselves,  guard  the  country,  preserve  yourselves. 
nimium  ne  crede  colori  (Eel.  ii.  17),  trust  not  complexion  overmuch. 

a.  Prohibitions  are  regularly  (in  classical  Latin)  expressed  — 
r.  by  ne  with  the  second  person  singular  of  the  Perfect  Subjunc- 
tive ;  2.  by  noli  with  the  Infinitive  ;  3.  by  cave  (colloquially  fac 
ne)  with  the  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive  (see  266.  b.) :  as, 

ne  territus  fueris  (Tac.  H.  i.  16),  de  not  frightened. 

noli  putare  (Brut.  33),  do  not  suppose. 

cave  faxis  (Ter  Heaut.  187),  do  not  do  it. 

fac  ne  quid  aliud  cures  (Fam.  xvi.  11),  pray  attend  to  nothing  else. 

b.  In  early  Latin,  in  poetry,  and  in  general  prohibitions,  the 

Present  subjunctive  is  also  used  (see  266.  a) :  as, 

denique  isto  bono  utare  dum  adsit :  cum  absit  ne  requiras  (C.  M.  10), 
in  short,  use  this  good  while  present ;  when  wanting,  do  not  regret  it. 

c.  The  third  person  of  the  Imperative  is  antiquated  or  poetic : 

ollis  salus  populi  suprema  lex  esto  (id.),  the  safety  of  the  people  shall  be 

their  first  law. 
justa  itnperia  sunto,  iisque  cives  modeste  parento  (Leg.  iii.  3),  let  the 

commands  be  just,  and  let  the  citizens  strictly  obey  them. 

d.  The  Future  Imperative  is  used  where  there  is  a  distinct  ref- 
erence to  future  time :  viz., 

1.  In  connection  with  a  future  or  future-perfect; 

2.  With  adverbs  or  other  expressions  of  Time  ; 

3.  In  general  directions,  as  Precepts,  Statutes,  and  Wills :  as, 

cum  valetudini  consulueris,  tum  consulito  navigationi  (Fam.  xvi.  4), 
when  you  have  attended  to  your  health,  then  look  to  your  sailing. 

is  juris  civilis  custos  e.sto  (Leg.  iii.  3),  let  him    (the  praetor)  be  the 
guardian  of  civil  right. 

e.  The  Future  form  of  the  imperative  is  regularly  used  of  scio, 
memini,  and  habeo  (in  the  sense  of  consider)  :  as, 

filiolo  me  auctum  scito  ( Att.  i.  2),  learn  that  I  am  blessed  with  a  little  b<^. 

sic  habeto,  mi  Tiro  (Fam.  xvi.  4),  so  understand  it,  my  good  Tiro. 

de  palla  memento,  amabo  (PI.  Asin.),/rrty,  dear,  remember  the go7vn. 

f.  The  Future  is  sometimes  used  for  the  imperative  ;  and  quin 
{why  not?)  with  the  present  indicative  may  have  the  force  of  an 
imperative  :  as, 

si  quid  acciderit  novi,  fades  ut  sciam  (Fam.  xiv.  8),  you  Tvili  let  me 

know  if  any  thing  ne7c>  happetu. 
quin  accipis?  (Ter.  Heaut.  iv.  7),  here^  take  it. 


The  Infinitive.  191 

IV. -THE  INFINITIVE. 
Note.  —  The  Infinitive  denotes  the  action  of  the  verb  as  an  abstract 
noun,  differing,  however,  from  other  abstract  nouns  in  the  following 
points:  (i)  It  admits,  in  many  cases,  of  the  distinction  of  tense; 
(2)  It  is  modified  by  adcerbs  and  not  by  adjectives ;  (3)  It  governs  the 
case  of  its  verb  ;  (4)  It  is  only  used  in  special  constructions.  The  In- 
finitive is  properly  the  Dative  case  of  an  abstract  noun,  denoting  Purpose, 
which  has  developed  in  Latin,  in  many  cases,  into  a  substitute  for  a  finite 
verb.  Hence  the  variety  of  its  use.  Its  Subject  is,  strictly,  the  Object 
of  some  other  verb,  which  has  become  attached  to  it :  as,  jubeo  te 
valere,  lit.,  /  command  you  for  being  well  (i.  e.  that  you  may  be  well), 
just  as,  in  Purpose-clauses,  the  purpose  becomes  the  object  of  command. 

270.  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a  subject  accusa- 
.tive,  may  be  used  as  the  Subject  of  a  verb,  or  in  predi- 
cate apposition :  aS; 

nihil  est  aliud  bene  et  beate  vivere,  nisi  honeste  et  recte  vivere  (Parad. 

i.  6),  to  live  well  and  happily,  is  nothing  else  than  to  live  honorably 
\  and  rightly. 

nam  istuc  ipsum  non  esse  cum  fueris  miserrimum  puto  (Tusc.  i.  6),fof 

I  think  this  very  thing  most  wretched,  not  to  be  zvhen  one  has  been. 

a.  The  infinitive  as  Subject  is  found  chiefly  vf\\h.  esse  and 
impersonal  verbs, — rarely  with  others. 

b.  The  infinitive  is  used  with  many  impersonal  verbs  and  ex- 
pressions, partly  as  Subject  and  partly  as  Complement :  as, 

id  primum  in  poetis  cerni  licet  (De  Or.  iii.  7),  this  may  be  seen  fir  si 
in  poets. 

reperiebat  quid  dici  opus  esset  (Brut,   tf)),  he  found  what  needed  to 
be  said. 

haec  praescripta  servantem  licet  magnifice  vivere  (Off.  i.  26),  one  who 

observes  these  precepts  may  live  nobly. 

Complementary  Infinitive. 

/     271.  The  infinitive,  without   a  subject,  is  used  with 
^  verbs  which  imply  another  action  of  the  same  subject  to 
complete  their  meaning :  ^  as, 

hoc  queo  dicere  (Cat.  M.  10),  this  I  can  say. 

mitto  quaerere  (Rose.  Am.),  I  omit  to  ask. 

vereor  laudare  praesentem  (N.  D.  i.  21),  I  fear  to  praise  in  one's  own 

presence. 
oro  ut  matures  venire  (Att.  iv.  i),  pray  make  haste  to  come. 

1  The  mark  of  this  construction  is  that  no  Subject  of  these  infinitives  is  in 
general  admissible  or  conceivable ;  though  the  same  verbs,  in  other  senses,  and 
rarely  also  by  analogy  in  the  same  sense,  may  take  an  infinitive  with  a  subject. 


192  Syntax  of  Moods. 

Note.  —  Such  are  verbs  denoting  to  be  able,  dare,  undertake, 
remember,  forget,  be  accustomed,  begin,  continue,  cease,  hesitate, 
learn,  know  how,  fear,  and  (in  general)  verbs  which  have  another 
action  of  the  same  subject  closely  connected  with  them. 

a.  The  infinitive  is  used  optionally  with  many  verbs  which  also 
take  a  Subjunctive  Clause.  Such  are  those  signifying  willing- 
ness, necessity,  propriety,  resolve,  command,  prohibition,  effort^ 
and  the  like  :  ^  as, 

quos  tueri  debent  deserunt  (Off.  i.  9),  they  forsake  those  whom  they 

should  protect. 
student  excellere  (Off.  i.  32),  they  aim  to  excel. 
istum  exheredare  in  animo  habebat  (Rose.  Am.  18),  he  had  it  in  mind 

to  deprive  him  of  the  inheritance. 

cupio  me  esse  clementem  [=  cupio  esse  clemens]  (Cat.  i.  2),  /  desire 
to  be  merciful. 

b.  Some  verbs  of  these  classes — jubeo  and  veto  regularly  — 
may  take  the  infinitive  with  another  subject :  *  as, 

signa  inferri  jubet  (Liv.  xlii.  59),  he  orders  the  standards  to  be  advanced. 


\ 


Subject-Accusative. 

272.  The  infinitive,  with  subject  accusative,  is  used 
with  verbs  and  other  expressions  of  Knowing,  Thinking, 
Telling,  and  Perceiving  :  ^  as, 

dicit  montem  ab  hostibus  teneri  (B.  G.  i.  22),  he  says  that  the  hill  is 
held  by  the  enemy  [direct,  mons  ab  hostibus  tenetur]. 

Remark.  —  The  Infinitive  Clause  may  be  either  —  i.  the  Direct 
Object  of  the  verb:  as,  Caesarem  adesse  nuntiavit ;  2.  the  Subject  of 
the  same  verb  in  the  passive  :  as,  Caesarem  adesse  nuntiattim  est ;  3. 
the  Predicate  after  some  such  phrase  as  rumor  est;  &c. ;  as,  rumor  erat 
Caesarem  adesse.  In  the  last  case,  it  is  sometimes  called  the  Object  of 
the  Verbal  Phrase  rumor  erat. 


1  The  subject  is  usually,  though  not  always,  omitted,  when  it  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  principal  verb. 

2  This  construction,  though  in  many  cases  different  from  the  two  preceding, 
shades  off  imperceptibly  into  them.  In  none  of  the  uses  is  the  infinitive  strictly 
Subject  or  Object ;  but  its  meaning  is  developed  from  the  original  one  oj  purpose. 
Hence  the  distinction  between  the  uses  is  not  always  clearly  marked. 

*  The  Infinitive  may  thus  represent,  in  indirect  discourse,  a  finite  verb  in 
direct  discourse,  admitting  all  the  variations  of  the  verb  except  number  and  per- 
son (sec  Chap.  V.). 


The  Infijiitive,  193 

a.  With  verbs  which  govern  the  dative,  the  subject  of  the 
action  may  be  in  the  dative.  With  licet  regularly,  and  with  others 
rarely,  the  predicate  may  also  be  in  the  dative  ;  as, 

non  libet  mihi  deplorare  vitam  {Cat.  M.  23),  /  have  no  desire  to  be- 
wail life. 

mihi  negligenti  esse  non  licet  (Att.  i.  17),  I  must  not  be  negligent  (also 
neglige/itt/n,  and  regularly  so  where  the  subject  is  indefinite). 

non  est  stantibus  omnibus  necesse  dicere  (Marc.  11),  //  is  not  necessary 
for  all  to  speak  standing. 

b.  When  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  is  not  expressed,  a  predi- 
cate noun  or  adjective  takes  the  case  of  the  subject  of  the  leading 
/erb.  This  is  rarely  found  (by  a  Greek  idiom)  even  in  Indirect 
Discourse  :  as, 

vir  bonus  et  sapiens  ait  esse  paratus  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  7),  a  good  and  wise 

man  says  he  is  prepared,  &c. 
sensit  medios  delapsus  in  hostes  {M.\\.  ii.  377),  he  found  himself  fallen 

among  the  foe. 

Purpose. 

273.  In  a  few  cases,  the  Infinitive  retains  its  original 
meaning  of  Purpose  :  viz. 

a.  With  habeo,  do,  ministro,  in  isolated  passages  :  as, 

tantum  habeo  polliceri  (Fam.  i.  5),  so  much  I  have  to  promise.  [Here 
the  )nore  formal  construction  would  be  quod pollicear.\ 

b.  The  Infinitive  is  found  after  paratus,  suetua  (used  as  adjec- 
tives), and  their  compounds  :  as, 

id  quod  parati  sunt  facere  (Quin.  2),  which  they  are  ready  to  do. 

c.  In  poetry  and  later  writers  almost  any  verb  may  have  the 
infinitive,  after  the  analogy  of  verbs  of  simpler  meaning  that  take 
it  in  prose  :  as, 

furit  te  reperire  (Hor.  Od.  i.  15),  he  rages  to  find  thee  (a  forcible  way  of 
saying  cupit). 

d.  Many  adjectives  take  the  Infinitive  in  poetry  following  a 
Greek  idiom :  as, 

durus  componere  versus  (Hor.  Sat.  i.  4),  harsh  in  composing  verse. 
cantari  dignus  (Eel.  v.  54),  worthy  to  be  sung. 

Remark.  —  Rarely,  in  poetry,  the  Infinitive  is  used  to  denote 
Result.  13 


194  Syntax  of  Tenses, 

274.  The  Infinitive,  with  subject-accusative,^  may  be 
used  in  Exclamations  (compare  240.  d) :  as, 

mene  incepto  desistere  victam  {M,n.  i.  37),  what !  I  desist  beaten  from 

my  purpose  ? 
te  in  tantas  aerumnas  propter  me  incidisse  (Fam.  xiv.  i),  a/as  f  that 

you  should  fall  into  such  grief  for  me. 

Historical  Infinitive. 

275.  The  Infinitive  is  often  used  for  the  tenses  of 
the  Indicative  in  narration,  and  takes  a  subject  in  the 
nominative:  as, 

turn  Catilina   polliceri  novas  tabulas  (Sail.  Cat.   21),  then  Catiline 

promised  abolition  of  debts  [clean  ledgers], 
ego  instare  ut  mihi  responderet  ( Verr.  ii.  77 ),  I  kept  urging  him  to  answer. 
Remark.  —  This  usage  is  most  frequent  where  many  verbs 
are  crowded  together  in  rapid  narrative  :    as, 

pars  cedere,  alii  insequi ;  neque  signa  neque  ordines  servare  ;  ubi 
quemque  periculum  ceperat,  ibi  resistere  ac  propulsare ;  arma, 
tela,  equi,  viri,  hostes  atque  cives  permixti  ;  nihil  consilio  neque 
imperio  agi  ;  fors  omnia  regere  (Jug.  51),  a  part  give  way,  others 
press  on;  they  hold  neither  to  standards  nor  ranks ;  where  danger 
overtook,  there  each  would  stand  and  fight ;  arms,  weapons^  horses^ 
men,  foe  and  friend,  mingled  in  confusion  ;  nothing  went  by  counsd  | 
or  command ;  chance  ruled  all.  ^ 

TENSES. 

Note. — The  number  of  possible  Tenses,  in  the  ordinary  meaning  of 
the  word,  is  very  great.  For  in  each  of  the  three  times.  Present,  Past, 
and  Future,  an  action  may  be  represented  as  going  on,  completed,  or 
beginning;  as  habitual  or  isolated;  as  defined  in  time  or  indefinite 
(aoristic) ;  as  absolute  or  relative  to  some  other  time;  or  the  past  and 
future  times  may  be  near  or  remote.  Thus  a  possible  scheme  of  thirty 
or  more  tenses  might  be  devised. 

But,  in  the  development  of  forms,  which  always  takes  place  gradually, 
no  language  finds  occasion  for  more  than  a  small  part  of  these.  The 
most  obvious  distinctions,  according  to  our  habits  of  thought,  appear 
in  the  following  scheme  :  — 

I.  Definite  (fixing  the  time  of  the  action).      2.  Indefinite. 

Incomplete.  Complete.  Aoristic. 

Present,    a.  /  am  7oriting.  8.  /  ha^e  written.  i\.  I  write. 

Past.           /S.  I  was  writing.  €.  /  had  written.  0.  I  wrote. 

Future.     '^.  J  shall  be  writing.  ^.  I  shall  have  7vritten.  k.  I  shall  write-    \ 

1  This  Constniction  is  elliptical ;  that  is,  the  thought  is  quoted  in  Indirect  \ 
Discourse,  though  no  verb  of  Saying,  &c.,  appears,  or  perhaps  is  thought  of  \ 
(compare  the  French  dire  que). 


The  Present,  195 

This  scheme  does  not,  indeed,  give  all  the  distinctions  in  use  ;  nor  do 
most  languages  furnish  forms  for  all  of  these.  Most  languages  disre- 
gard some  of  these  distinctions,  and  some  make  other  distinctions  not 
here  given.  The  language  from  which  Latin  sprang  had  a  Present  tense 
to  express  o  and  ??,  a  Perfect  to  express  S,  an  Aorist  to  express  Q,  a  Fu- 
ture to  express  7  and  /c,  and  an  Imperfect  to  express  ^.  The  Latin, 
however,  confounded  the  Perfect  and  Aorist  in  a  single  form  [scripsi), 
thus  losing  the  distinction  between  S  and  Q.  The  nature  of  this  confu- 
sion may  be  seen  by  comparing  dixi,  dicavi,  and  didici  (all  Perfects  derived 
from  the  same  root  dik),  with  €5et|a,  adiksham,  SdSeixa,  di'defa.  Latin 
also  developed  other  forms  for  e  {scripseram)  and  ^  {scripsero),  giving  six 
tenses,  as  seen  in  115  (p.  62). 

The  line  between  these,  moreover,  is  not  a  hard  and  fast  one,  nor  is 
it  precisely  the  line  which  we  draw  in  English.  Thus  in  many  verbs,  on 
account  of  a  peculiarity  of  meaning,  the  form  for  S  has  the  sense  of  o  or 
77,  and  the  form  for  e  the  sense  of  j8.  Again,  Latin  often  uses^the  form 
for  ^to  express  k,  or  even  7.  Thus  novi  ('*  I  have  learned  ")  is  used  for 
"I  know;"  constiterat  ("he  had  taken  his  position")  for  "he  stood;" 
cognovero  ("I  shall  have  learned")  for  "I  shall  be  aware."  The  idio- 
matic uses  of  the  language  are  in  all  cases  to  be  noticed. 

Present. 

276.  The  Present  denotes  an  action  or  state  as  now 
existing,  as  incomplete,  or  as  indefinite  (without  reference 
to  time)  :  as, 

Senatus  haec  intellegit,  consul  videt,  hie  tamen  vivit  (Cat.  i.  i),  the 
Senate  knows  this,  the  consul  sees,  yet  this  man  lives. 

tu  actionem  instituis,  ille  aciem  instruit  (Mur.  9),  you  arrange  a  case, 
he  arrays  an  army. 

a.  The  Present,  with  expressions  of  duration  of  time,  denotes 
an  action  continuing  in  the  present,  but  begun  in  the  past :  as, 

■  patimur  jam  multos  annos  (Verr.  vi.  48),  we  stiffer  now  these  many 
years  (the  perfect  would  mean  we  no  longer  suffer). 

I  anni  sunt  octo  cum  ista  causa  versatur  (Clu.  30),  it  is  now  eight  years 
that  this  case  has  been  in  hand. 

b.  The  present  sometimes  denotes  an  action  not  completed  at 
all,  but  only  attempted  {Conative  Present)  :  as, 

decerno  quinquaginta  dierum  supplicationes  (Phil.  xiv.  11),  I  move  for 
fifty  days''  thanksgiving.     [Senatus  decrevit,  the  senate  ordained.^ 

c.  The  present,  especially  in  colloquial  language,  is  sometimes 
used  for  the  Future  :  as, 

imusne  sessum  (De  Or.  iii.  5),  shall  we  take  a  seat  ? 


196  Syntax  of  Tenses, 

ecquid  me  adjuvas  ?  (Clu.  26),  wonU you  give  me  a  little  help  ? 
in  jus  voco  te.     non  eo.     non  is  ?  (PI.  As.  480),  I  summon  you  to  th^ 
^court.     I  won't  go.     You  won't? 

(See  also  under  cum,  antequam,  dum,  Chap.  V.) 

d.  The  present  in  lively  narrative  is  often  used  for  the  historical 
perfect  {Historical  Present)  :  as, 

affertur  nuntius  Syracusas ;  curritur  ad  praetorium ;  Cleomenes, 
quamquam  nox  erat,  tamen  in  publico  esse  non  audet ;  includit  se 
domi  ( Verr.  vi.  35),  the  news  is  brought  to  Syracuse  ;  they  ru?i  to  head- 
quarters ;  Cleomenes,  though  it  was  nighty  does  not  venture  to  be  abroad ; 
he  shuts  himself  up  at  home. 

e.  The  present  is  regularly  used  with  dum,  while^  though  the 
time  referred  to  is  past :  as, 

haec  dum  aguntur,  interea  Cleomenes  jam  ad  Elori  litus  pervenerat 
(id.),  while  this  is  going  on,  Cleomenes  meanwhile  had  come  down  to  the 
coast  at  Elorum. 

Note.  —  When  the  time  referred  to  is  emphatically  ^tf«/r<zj/^^ 
with  some  other  (usually  in  the  sense  so  long  as),  the  past  tense 
must  be  used :  as,  nee  enim  dum  eram  vobiscum  a?iimum  meum 
videbatis  (Cat.  M.  22).  A  few  irregular  cases  of  dum  with  past 
tenses  also  occur  (compare  the  passages)  :  as, 

coorta  est  pugna,  par  dum  constabant  ordines  (Liv.  xxii.  47),  a  con- 
flict began,  well  matched  as  long  as  the  ranks  stood  fir jn. 
dum   oculos   hostium   certamen   averterat   (id.   xxxii.  24),  while  the 

struggle  kept  the  eyes  of  the  enemy  turned  away. 
dum  unum  adscendere  gradum  conatus  est,  venit  in  periculum  (Mur. 

27 ),  while  he  attempted  to  climb  one  step  [in  rank]  he  fell  into  danger. 

f.  The  present  is  regularly  used  of  writers  whose  works  are 
extant :  as, 

Epicurus  vero  ea  dicit  (Tusc.  ii.  7),  but  Epicurus  says  such  things. 
apud  ilium  Ulysses  lamentatur  in  vulnere  (id.  21),  in  him  [Sophocles] 
Ulysses  bewails  over  his  wound. 

Imperfect. 

277.  The  Imperfect  denotes  an  action  or  a  state  con- 
tinued or  repeated  in  past  time :  as, 

hunc  audiebant  antca  (Man.  5),  they  used  to  hear  him  before. 
Socrates  ita  censebat  itaque  disseruit  (Tusc.  i.  30),  Socrates  thought  so  | 
[habitually]  and  so  he  spoke  [then].  1 

Remark.  —  The  imperfect  represents  a  present  transferred  to  past  i 
time  ;  and  hence  has  all  the  meanings  derived  from  the  continuance  of  ' 
the  action  which  the  present  has,  but  referred  to  past  time  (see  details 
below). 


Imperfect,  Future,  Perfect.  197 

a.  Hence  the  imperfect  is  used  in  Descriptions  :  as, 

erant  omnino  itinera  duo  .  .  .  mons  altissimus  impendebat  (B.  G.  i. 
6),  there  were  in  all  two  ways  .  .  .  a  very  high  mountain  overhung. 

b.  The  imperfect  sometimes  denotes  an  action  continuing  in  the 

past  but  begun  at  some  previous  time  (cf.  276.  a)\  as, 

copias  quas  diu  comparabant  (Fam.  i.  13),  the  forces  which  they  had 
long  been  getting  ready. 

c.  The  imperfect  sometimes   denotes  an  action  as  begun,  at- 
tempted, or  only  intended,  conative  imperfect  (compare  276.  b)  :  as, 

in  exsilium  eiciebam  quem  jam  ingressum  esse  in  bellum  videbam 

(Cat.  ii.  6),  7vas  I  sending  (i.e.  trying  to  send)  into  exile  one  who  I  saw 

had  already  gone  into  war  ? 
hunc  igitur  diem  sibi  proponens  Milo,  cruentis  manibus  ad  ilia  au- 

gusta  centuriarum  auspicia  veniebat  (Mil.  i6),  was  Milo  coming  (i.e. 

was  it  likely  that  he  would  come),  &^c.  ? 
si  licitum  esset  veniebant  (Verr.  vi.  49),  they  were  coming  if  it  had 

been  allowed. 

d.  The  imperfect  is  sometimes  used  to  express  a  certain  sur- 
prise at  iYiQ  present  discovery  of  a  fact  already  existing :  as, 

O  tu  quoque  hie  aderas,  Phormio  (Ter.  Ph.  v.  6),  O !  you  are  here 
too,  Phormio. 

ehem  pater  mi,  tu  hie  eras  ?  (PI.  id.  v.  7),  what!  you  here,  father  ? 
ah  miser  !  quanta  laborabas  Charybdi  (Hor.  Od.  i.  27),  unhappy  boy, 
what  a  whirlpool  you  are  struggling  in  [and  I  never  knew  it]  I 

e.  The  imperfect  is  often  used  in  narration  by  the  comic  poets, 
where  later  writers  would  employ  the  perfect  :  as, 

ad  amicum  Calliclem  quoi  rem  aibat  mandasse  hie  suam  (Trin.  956), 
to  his  friend  Callicles,  to  whom,  he  said,  he  had  intrusted  his  property. 

praesagibat  animus  frustra  me  ire  quom  exibam  domo  (Aul.  222), 
my  mind  mistrusted  when  I  went  from  home  that  I  tuent  in  vain. 

f.  The  imperfect  Indicative,  in  apodosis  contrary  to  fact,  regu-* 
larly  refers  to  present  time  (see  308.  b). 

Future. 

278.  The  Future  denotes  an  action  or  state  that  will 
occur  hereafter. 

a.  The  Future  sometimes  has  the  force  of  an  Imperative  (see 
269.  /). 

b.  The  Future  requires  to  be  expressed  in  subordinate  clauses, 
where  in  English  it  is  commonly  expressed  only  in  the  principal 
clause:  as, 

cum  aderit  videbit,  when  he  is  there  he  will  see. 

sanabimur  si  volemus  (Tusc.  iii.  6),  we  shall  be  healed  if  we  wish. 


198  Syntax  of  Tenses, 

The  Tenses  of  Completed  Action. 

279.  The  Perfect  definite  denotes  an  action  as  now 
completed  :  the  Perfect  historical,  as  having  taken  place 
indefinitely  in  past  time :  as, 

ut  ego  feci,  qui  Graecas  litteras  senex  didici  (C.  M.  8),  as  I  have  done, 
who  have  learned  Greek  in  my  old  age. 

tantum  bellum  extrema  hieme  apparavit,  ineunte  vere  susc^pit,  media 
aestate  confecit  (Man.  12),  so  great  a  war  he  made  ready  for  at  the 
end  of  winter,  undertook  in  early  spring,  and  finished  by  midsummer. 

a.  The  perfect  is  sometimes  used  emphatically  to  denote  that 
something  no  longer  exists  :  as, 

fuit  ista  quondam  in  hac  re  publica  virtus  (Cat.  i.  i),  there  was  otue 

such  virtue  in  this  commonwealth. 
habuit,  non  habet  (Tusc.  i.  36),  he  had,  he  has  no  longer. 

b.  The  perfect  is  sometimes  used  of  indefinite  time  in  connec- 
tion with  a  general  present :  as, 

qui  in  compedibus  corporis  semper  fuerunt,  etiam  cum  soluti  sunt 
tardius  ingrediuntur  (Tusc.  i.  31),  they  who  have  always  been  in 
fetters  of  the  body,  even  when  released  move  more  slowly. 

This  is  especially  common  in  Conditions. 

c.  The  perfect  is  sometimes  used  of  a  general  truth,  especially 
with  negations  {Gnomic  Perfect)  :  as, 

qui  studet  contingere  metam  multa  tulit  fecitque  (Hor.  A.  P.  412), 
he  who  aims  to  reach  the  goal,  first  bears  and  does  many  things. 

non  aeris  acervus  et  auri  deduxit  corpore  febres  (id.  Ep.  i.  2),  the 
pile  of  brass  and  gold  removes  not  fever  from  the  frame. 

d.  The  perfect  is  often  used  in  expressions  containing  or  im- 
plying a  negation,  where  in  affirmation  the  imperfect  would  be 
preferred  :  as, 

dicebat  melius  quam  scripsit  Hortensius  (Or.  38),  Hortensius  spoke 
better  than  he  wrote.  [Here  the  negative  is  implied  in  the  com- 
parison :  compare  the  use  of  quis^uam,  ullus,  &c.,  and  the  French 
ne  after  comparatives  and  superlatives]. 

Remark.  —  The  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  of  a  few  verbs  are 
equivalent  to  the  Present  and  Imperfect  of  kindred  verbs :  novi, 
I  know ;  odi  (osus),  I  hate  j  memini,  I  remember  j  cognoveram, 
/  knew ;  venerat  (=aderat),  he  was  at  hand :  as, 

qui  dies  aestus  maxinios  efficere  consuevit  (B.  G.  iv.  29),  which  day 

generally  makes  the  highest  tides. 
cujus  splendor   obsolevit  (Quinc.  v.   18),  whose  splendor  is  now  out 

of  date. 

Many  other  verbs  are  occasionally  so  used :  as,  dum  oculos  cer- 
tamen  averterat  (=  tenebat.     Li  v.  xxxii.  24). 


Tenses  of  the  Subjunctive.  199 

280.  The  Pluperfect  is  used  to  denote  an  action  com- 
pleted in  time  past ;  sometimes,  also,  repeated  in  indefi- 
nite time :  as, 

neque  vero  cum  aliquid  mandaverat  confectum  putabat  (Cat.  iii.  7), 

for  when  he  had  given  a  thing  in  charge  he  did  not  look  on  it  as  done. 
quae  si  quando  adepta  est  id  quod  ei  fuerat  concupitum,  turn  fert 
alacritatem  (Tusc.  iv.  15),  if  it  [desire]  ever  has  gained  what  it  had 
desired,  then  it  produces  joy. 

281.  The  Future  Perfect  denotes  an  action  as  com- 
pleted in  the  future  :  as, 

ut  sementem  feceris,  ita  metes  (Or.  ii.  65),  as  you  sow,  so  shall  you 
reap. 

Remark.  — The  Future  Perfect  is  used  (as  above)  with  much  greater 
exactness  in  Latin  than  in  English,  and  may  even  be  used  instead  of 
the  Future,  from  the  fondness  of  the  Latins  for  representing  an  action 
as  completed  :  as, 

quid  inventum  sit  paulo  post  videro  (Acad.  ii.  24),  what  has  been 

found  out  I  will  see  presently. 
ego  certe  meum  officium  praestitero  (B.  G.  iv.  5),  I  at  lecLst  will  have 

done  my  duty. 

Epistolary  Tenses. 

282.  In  Letters,  the  perfect  {historical)  or  imperfect 
may  be  used  for  the  present,  and  the  pluperfect  for 
past  tenses,  as  if  the  letter  were  dated  at  the  time  it  is 
supposed  to  be  received:  as, 

neque  tamen,  cum  haec  scribebam,  eram  nescius  quantis  oneribus 
premerere  (Fam.  v.  12),  nor  while  I  tvrite  this  am  I  ignorant  under 
what  burdens  you  are  weighed. 

ad  tuas  omnes  [epistulas]  rescripseram  pridie  (Att.  ix.  10),  /  [have] 
answered  all  your  letters  yesterday. 

Tenses  of  the  Subjunctive. 

283.  The  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  denote  Absolute 
time  only  in  Independent  Clauses.  In  these  the  Present 
always  refers  to  future  time;  the  Imperfect  to  either /^j/ 
or  present ;  the  Perfect  to  either  future  or  past ;  the 
Pluperfect  always  to  past. 

284.  In  Dependent  Clauses,  the  tenses  of  the  Sub- 
junctive denote  Relative  time,  not  with  reference  to  the 
speaker,  but  to  the  time  of  some  other  verb. 


2CX>  Syntax  of  Tenses. 

Sequence  of  Tenses. 

285.  The  forms  which  denote  Absolute  time  may  be 
used  in  any  connection.  But  those  denoting  Relative 
time  follow  special  rules  for  the  Sequence  of  Tenses. 
For  this  purpose,  tenses  are  divided  into  two  classes  — 

1.  Primary,  including  the  Present,  both  Futures,  and  the  Per- 
fect {definite). 

2.  Secondary,  including  the  Imperfect,  the  Perfect  {historical), 
and  the  Pluperfect. 

286.  In  compound  sentences,  a  Primary  tense  in  the 
leading  clause  is  followed  by  a  Primary  tense  in  the 
dependent  clause  ;  and  a  Secondary  tense  is  followed 
by  a  Secondary  :    as, 

Bcribit  ut  nos  moneat,  he  writes  to  warn  us. 

scribet  ut  nos  moneat,  he  will  write  to  warn  us. 

scribe  (scribito)  ut  nos  moneas,  write  that  you  may  warn  us. 

scripsit  ut  nos  moneret,  he  wrote  to  warn  us. 

scribit  quasi  oblitus  sit,  he  writes  as  if  he  had  forgotten. 

scripsit  quasi  oblitus  esset,  he  wrote  as  if  he  had  forgotten. 

rogo  quid  fac  turns  sis,  I  ask  what  you  are  going  to  do. 

Remark.  —  The  Rule  appears  in  the  following  Diagram  :  — 


TENSES  OF  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Primary. 
Action  not  complete  {time  rela-  )       Present. 
tively  present  or  future). 


Secondary. 
Imperfect. 


2.  Action  complete  (time  relatively  )       Perfect.       I     Pluperfect. 
past).  )  I 

In  applying  the  rule  for  the  Sequence  of  Tenses,  consider  ( i )  whether 
the  leading  verb  is  primary  or  secondary ;  (2)  whether  the  dependent 
verb  is  required  to  denote  complete  action  (i.e.  relatively  past),  or  itt- 
complete  (relatively  present  or  future).  By  taking  the  corresponding 
tense,  as  given  above,  the  correct  usage  will  usually  be  found. 

Notice  that  the  Future  Perfect  denotes  relatively  completed  zc\\ox\, 
and  hence  is  represented  in  the  Subjunctive  by  the  Perfect  or  Plu- 
perfect. 

287.  In  the  Sequence  of  Tenses,  the  following  points 
are  to  be  observed  :  — 


Sequence  of  Tenses.  20 1 

a.  The  perfect  definite  is  properly  a  primary  tense  ;  but,  as  its 
action  is  (at  least)  commenced  in  past  time,  it  is  more  commonly 
followed  by  secondary  tenses  :  as, 

ut  satis  esset  praesidii  provisum  est  (Cat.  ii.  12),  provision  has  been 

made  that  there  should  be  ample  guard. 
adduxi  hominem  in  quo  satisfacere  exteris  nationibus  possetis  (Verr. 

i.  i),  /  have  brought  a  man  in  whose  person  you  can  make  satisfaction 

to  foreign  nations. 
tantum  profecisse  videmur  ut  a  Graecis  ne  verborum  quidem  copi? 

vinceremur  (Cic),  weseefn  to  have  advanced  so  far  that  even  in  fuh 

ness  of  words  we  are  not  surpassed  by  the  Greeks. 

b.  The  perfect  subjunctive  is  regularly  used  to  denote  any  past 

action  (either  as  Perfect  definite  or  historical^  depending  on  a 

verb  in  a  primary  tense :    as, 

ex  epistulis  intellegi  licet  quam  frequens  fuerit  Platonis  auditor 
(Or.  4),  //  may  be  understood  from  his  letters  how  constant  a  hearer  he 
was  of  Plato. 

c.  In  clauses  of  Result,  the  perfect  subjunctive  is  very  often 
(the  present  rarely)  used  after  secondary  tenses  :  as, 

Hortensius  ardebat  dicendi  cupiditate  sic  ut  in  nullo  unquam  flagran- 
tius  studium  viderim  (Brut.  88),  Hortensius  was  so  hot  with  desire 
of  speaking  that  I  have  never  seen  a  more  burnittg  ardor  in  any  ma)t. 

Siciliam  Verres  per  triennium  ita  vexavit  ac  perdidit,  ut  ea  restitui  in 
antiquum  statum  nullo  modo  possit  (Verr.  i.  4),  for  three  years 
Verres  so  racked  and  ruined  Sicily,  that  she  can  in  no  way  be  restored 
to  her  former  state.  [Here  the  present  is  used  in  describing  a  state 
of  things  actually  existing.] 

Remark. — This  construction  gives  more  emphasis  to  the  fact  stated 
as  a  result ;  while  the  regular  one  gives  more  prominence  to  the  main 
clause.  The  perfect,  thus  used,  can  stand  only  for  a  perfect  indicative, 
not  an  imperfect ;  and,  in  general,  the  perfect  is  often  represented  by 
the  perfect  subjunctive,  contrary  to  the  general  rule  :  as, 

Thorius  erat  ita  non  superstitiosus  ut  ilia  plurima  in  sua  patria  et 
sacrificia  et  fana  contemneret;  ita  non  timidus  ad  mortem  ut  in 
acie  sit  ob  rem  publicam  interfectus  (Fin.  ii.  20),  Thorius  was  so 
little  superstitious  that  he  despised  [contemnebat]  the  many  sacrifices 
and  shrines  in  his  country,  so  little  timorous  about  death  that  he  was 
killed  [interfectus  est]  in  battle,  in  defence  of  the  State. 

Zeno  nullo  modo  is  erat  qui  nervos  virtutis  inciderit  [compare 
279>  d\ ;  sed  contra  qui  omnia  in  una  virtute  poneret  (Acad.  i.  10), 
Zeno  was  noway  one  to  cut  the  sinews  of  virtue ;  but  one,  on  the  con- 
trary, who  made  everything  depend  on  virtue  alone. 

d.  A  general  truth  after  a  past  tense  follows  the  connection  of 

tenses  in  Latin  (though  not  usually  in  English)  :  as, 

ex  his  quae  tribuisset  sibi  quam  mutabilis  esset  reputabat  (Q.  C.  iii. 
9),  from  what  she  [Fortune]  had  bestowed  on  him,  he  reflected  how 
inconstant  she  is. 


202  Syntax  of  Tenses. 

ibi  quantam  vim  ad  stimulandos  animos  ira  haberet  apparuit  (Liv. 

xxxiii.  yj),  here  it  appeared  what  power  anger  has  to  goad  the  mind. 

e.  The  historical  present  may  be  followed  by  either  primary  or 
secondary  tenses,  but  more  commonly  by  secondary  :  as, 

rogat  ut  curet  quod  dixisset  (Quinct.  5),  he  asks  him  to  attend  to  the 

thing  he  had  spoken  of. 
castella  communit  quo  facilius  prohiberi  possent  (B.  G.  i.  8),  he 

strengthens  the  forts  that  they  might  be  more  easily  kept  off. 

f.  When  the  secondary  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  are  used  in 
protasis  and  apodosis,  they  may  stand  after  any  tense  :  as, 

quia  tale  sit,  ut  vel  si  ignorarent  id  homines,  etc.  (Fin.  ii.  15),  became 
it  is  such  that  even  if  men  were  ignorant,  $^c. 

g.  The  imperfect  subjunctive,  in  protasis  or  apodosis,  though 
referring  to  present  time,  is  regularly  followed  by  secondary 
tenses :  as, 

si  solos  eos  diceres  miseros  quibus  moriendum  esset,  neminem  exci- 
peres  (Tusc.  i.  5),  if  you  called  only  those  wretched  who  must  die,  you 
would  except  no  one. 

h.  After  the  present,  when  a  past  tense  appears  to  be  in  the 
writer's  thought,  secondary  tenses  sometimes  follow  by  a  kind  of 
Synesis:  as, 

sed  tamen  ut  scires  haec  tibi  scribo  (Fam.  xiii.  47),  btit  yet  that  you 
may  knoiv,  I  write  thus  [as  if  Epistolary  Imperfect]. 

cujus  praecepti  tanta  vis  est  ut  ea  non  homini  cuipiam  sed  Delphico 
deo  tribueretur  (Leg.  i.  22),  such  is  the  force  of  this  precept,  that  it 
■'.tas  ascribed  not  to  any  man,  but  to  the  Delphic  god  [the  precept  was 
an  old  one]. 

Tenses  of  the  Infinitive. 

288.  The  tenses  of  the  Infinitive  are  present,  past,  or 
future,  relatively  to  the  time  of  the  verb  on  which  they 
depend  :  as, 

nostros  non  esse  inferiores  intellexit  (B.  G.  ii.  8),  he  ascertained  that 

our  men  were  not  inferior. 
quam  Juno  fertur  terris  magis  omnibus  coluisse  (iEn.  i.  15),  which 

Juno,  'tis  said,  cherished  above  all  lands. 
sperant  se  maximum  fructum  esse  captures  (Lael.  21),  they  hope  they 

shall  receive  the  greatest  advantage. 

a.  The  present  infinitive,  after  certain  verbs  in  the  past,  must  be 
rendered  by  the  perfect  infinitive  in  English  :  as, 
scire  potuit  (Milo,  17),  he  might  haz^e  known. 

qui  videbatur  omnino  mori  non  debuisse  (Arch.  8),  who  seemed  [one 
that]  ought  not  to  have  died  at  ail. 


Tenses  of  the  Infinitive.  203 

Remark.  —  This  is  most  frequent  with  verbs  of  necessity,  pro- 
priety, and  possibility  (potui,  debui,  oportuit). 

b.  The  perfect  infinitive  represents  in  Indirect  Discourse  any 
past  tense  of  a  finite  mood.  But  the  imperfect  is  sometimes 
represented  by  the  present  infinitive,  —  regularly  after  memiui 
where  the  memory  recalls  the  action,  but  not  where  it  recalls  the 
mere  fact :  *  as, 

quis  potest  credere  senatum  putasse  (Mil.  5),  who  can  believe  the  Senate 
thought?     \p\x .  ^\'&z.  putabai\. 

memini  Catonem  mecum  disserere  (Lael.  3),  /  remember  Gate's  dis- 
coursing with  me  (so  dicere  aiebat,  De  Or.  ii.  3). 

meministis  me  ita  distribuisse  causam  (Rose.  Am.  42),  you  remember 
that  I  so  laid  out  the  case. 

c.  Except  in  indirect  discourse  the  present  infinitive  only  is 
generally  used,  with  no  distinct  reference  to  time : 

est  adulescentis  majores  natu  vereri  (Off.  i.  34),  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
young  to  reverence  their  elders. 

d.  After  verbs  of  wishing,  necessity,  and  the  like,  the  perfect 
passive  infinitive  is  often  used  instead  of  the  present:  as, 

domestica  curate  levatum  [esse]  volo  (Q.  F.  iii.  9),  I  wish  you  relieved 

of  household  care  (compare  I  pray  thee  have  me  excused). 
quod  jampridem  factum  esse  oportuit  (Cat.  i.  2),  which  ought  to  have 
been  done  long  ago  (compare  a). 

Remark.  —  In  early  Latin,  and  in  Poetry,  the  perfect  active  is 
also  used,  and  even  after  other  verbs  than  those  of  wishing  :  as, 
commisisse  cavet  (Hor.  A.  P.  168),  he  is  cautious  of  doing. 
baud  equidem  premendo   alium  me  extulisse  velim  (Liv.  xxii.  59), 

/  would  not  by  crushing  another  exalt  myself. 
sunt  qui  nolint  tetigisse  (Hor.  Sat.  i.  2),  there  are  those  who  would 

not  touch. 
AoUem  dixisse  (Verr.  v.  20),  I  would  not  say. 

e.  The  perfect  infinitive  is  used,  especially  by  poets,  to  denote 
a  completed  action  after  verbs  of  Feeling  ;  also  with  satis  est, 
satis  habeo,  melius  est,  contentus  sum,  and  in  a  few  other  cases 
where  this  distinction  is  important :  as, 

quiesse  erit  melius  (Liv.  iii.  48),  it  will  be  better  to  have  kept  quiet. 
non  paenitebat  intercapedinem  scribendi  fecisse  (Fam.  xvi.  21),  I  was 
not  sorry  to  have  made  a  respite  of  writing. 

pudet  me  .  .  .  non  praestitisse  (id.  xiv.  3),  /  am  ashamed  not  to  have 
shozun. 

^  Compare  Goodwin's  Gr.  Grammar,  203,  n.  i. 


I.  Participles 


204  Syntax  of  Participles, 

sunt  quos  curriculo  pulverem  Olympicum  collegisse  juvat  (Hor.  Od. 

i.  I ),  there  are  those  who  delight ,  ^c. 
nil  ego  si  peccem  possum  nescisse  (Ov.  Her.  xvii.  47),  if  I  go  wrongs 

J  cannot  have  done  it  in  ignorance. 

f.  The  future  infinitive  is  often  expressed  by  fore  (or  futunim 
esse)  ut —  necessarily,  where  there  is  no  supine  stem  :  as, 

spero  fore  ut  contingat  id  nobis  (Tusc.  i.),  /  hope  thai  will  be  our 
happy  lot.     [But,  sperat  se posse  (B.  G.  i.  3).] 

\\,  —  Noun  and  Adjective  Forms. 

The  several  Noun  and  Adjective  forms  associated  with  the  Verb  are 
employed  as  follows  :  — 

{Simple  Predicate. 
Periphrastic  Perfect  (passive). 
Predicate  of  Circumstance. 
Descriptive  ( Indirect  Discourse). 

<5.  Future    (^^"Pj'^^^'^^.i^f^^;      ^,       ^^  e  u- , 
j  Penphrastic  with/«/  (=  Pluperfect  Subj.). 

!as  Descriptive  Adjective. 
Periphrastic  with  esse. 
of  Purpose  with  certain  verbs. 

(  a.  Genitive  as  Objective  Genitive. 

2.  Gerund  or        !  b.  Dative,  with  Adjectives  (of  Fitness),  Nouns,  Verbs. 
Gerundive  :      |  c.  Accusative,  with  certain  Prepositions. 

{ d.  Ablative,  of  Means,  Comparison,  or  with  Prepositions. 

c:tTPTiMr  •  i  "•  Fori^er  Supine  (in  um),  with  Verbs  of  Motion. 

3.  ouFiNE  .  I  ^    •L2Xtex  Supine  (in  u),  chiefly  with  Adjectives. 

PARTICIPLES. 

289.  The  Participle  expresses  the  action  of  the  verb 
in  the  form  of  an  Adjective  ;  but  has  a  partial  distinc- 
tion of  tense,  and  generally  governs  the  case  of  its 
verb. 

Distinctions  of  Tense. 

290.  The   Present   participle   denotes   the  action   as 

not  completed ;    the  Perfect   as  completed ;    the   Future 

as  still  to  take  place. 

a.  The  Present  participle  has  several  of  the  irregular  uses  of 
the  present  indicative  (compare  276.  ^,  c^. 

quaerenti  mihi  jamdiu  certa  res  nulla  veniebat  in  mentem  (Fam.  iv. 

13),  though  I  had  long  sought,  no  certain  thing  came  to  my  mind. 
C.  Flaminio  restitit  agrum  Picentem  dividenti  (Cat.  M.  4),  he  resisted 

Flaminitis  when  attempting  to  diride,  &*c. 
iens  in  Pompeianum  bene  mane  haec  scripsi  (Att.  iv.  9),  I  write  this 

when  abcut  going  very  early  to  my  place  at  Pompeii. 


Participles  :  Adjective  Use.  205 

b.  The  Perfect  participle  of  a  few  deponent  verbs  is  used  nearly 
in  the  sense  of  a  Present.  Such  are,  regularly,  ratus,  solitus, 
veritusj  commonly,  Jisus,  ausus,  secutus,  and  occasionally  others, 
especially  in  later  writers  :  as, 

cohortatus   milites   docuit   (B.  C.   iii.   80),  encouraging  the  men,  he 

showed,  &=€. 
iratus  dixisti  (Mur.  '>p)^you  spoke  in  a  passion. 
oblitus  auspicia  (Phil.  i.  \i),  forgetting  the  auspices. 
insidias  veritus  (B.  G.  ii.  I'i),  fearing atnbuscade. 
imperio  potitus  (Liv.  xxi.  2),  holding  the  command. 
ad  pugnam  congressi  (id.  iv.  10),  meeting  in  fight. 
rem  incredibilem  rati  (Sail.  C.  48),  thinking  it  incredible. 

c.  The  present  participle,  wanting  in  the  Passive,  is  usually 
supplied  by  a  clause  with  dum  or  cum  ;  rarely  by  the  participle 
in  dus  :  as, 

Die,  hospes,  Spartae,  nos  te  hie  vidisse  jaeentes, 

Dum  Sanctis  patriae  legibus  obsequimur 
Tell  it,  stranger,  at  Sparta,  that  we  lie  here  obedient  to  our  country's 

sacred  laws.     [Here  dum  obsequimtir  is  a  translation  of  the  Greek 

cruclbus  adfixi  aut  flammandi  (Ann.  xv.  44),  crucified  or  set  on  fire 
(in  flames  :  compare  note  3  under  296). 

d.  The  perfect  active  participle  (which  was  lost  in  Latin  except 
in  deponents)  is  supplied  either  by  the  Ablative  Absolute  with 
change  of  voice  (255,  Note),  or  by  a  clause  with  cum  or  dum. 
The  perfect  participle  of  several  deponents  may  be  either  active 
or  passive  (see  135.  b). 

Adjective  IJge. 

291.  The  present  and  perfect  participles  are  used 
sometimes  as  attributes,  nearly  like  adjectives :   as, 

cum  antiquissimam  sententiam  turn  comprobatam  (Div.  i.  5),  a  view 

at  once  most  ancient  and  approved. 
signa  nunquam  fere  ementientia  (id.  9),  signs  hardly  ever  deceitful. 
auspiciis  utuntur  coactis  (id.  15),  they  use  forced  auspices. 

a.  Participles  often  become  complete  adjectives,  and  may  be 
compared  as  such,  or  used,  like  other  adjectives,  as  nouns  :  as, 

sibi  indulgentes  et  corpori  deservientes  (Leg.  i.  13),  the  self-indulgent, 

and  slaves  to  the  body. 
recte  facta  paria  esse  debent  (Par.  iii.  i),  right  deeds  ought  to  be  like  in 

value  (see  207.  c). 
male  parta  male  dilabuntur  (Phil.  ii.  27),  ill  got,  ill  spent. 
consuetudo  valentis  (De  Or.  ii.  44),  the  habit  of  a  man  in  health. 


2o6  Syntax  of  Participles. 

b.  A  participle  may,  as  a  predicate  adjective,  be  connected 
with  a  noun  by  esse  or  any  similar  verb  :  as, 

Gallia  est  omnis  divisa  (B.  G.  i.  i),  a//  Gaul  is  divided. 
locus  qui  nunc  saeptus  est  (Liv.  i.  8),  the  place  which  is  now  enclosed. 
videtis  ut  senectus  sit  operosa  et  semper  agens  aliquid  et  moliens 
(Cat.  M.  ^)fyou  see  how  busy  old  age  is,  always  aiming  and  trying  at 
something. 

Remark.  —  From  the  predicate  use  arise  the  compound  tenses  of  the 
passive,  —  the  participle  of  completed  action  with  the  incomplete  tenses 
of  esse  developing  the  idea  of  past  time  :  as,  interfectus  est,  he  was 
(or  has  been)  killed^  lit.,  he  is  having-been-killed  [i.e.,  already  slain].  In  the 
best  writers  (as  Cicero),  the  perfect  participle,  when  used  with  ful,  &c., 
retains  its  proper  force  ;  but  in  later  writers  the  two  sets  of  tenses  (as, 
amatus  sum  or  f ui)  are  often  used  indiscriminately  to  form  periphrastic 
tenses  in  the  passive :  as, 

[leges]  cum  quae  latae  sunt  turn  vero  quae  promulgatae  fuerunt  (Sest. 
25),  the  laws,  both  those  which  were  proposed,  and  those  which  were 
published.  [The  proposal  of  the  laws  was  a  single  act :  hence  latae 
sunt  is  a  pure  perfect.  The  publishing,  or  posting,  was  a  continued 
state,  which  is  indicated  by  promulgatae,  and  fuerunt  is  the  pure 
perfect.] 

arma  quae  fixa  in  parietibus  fuerant,  humi  inventa  sunt  (Div.  i.  34), 
the  arms  which  had  been  fastened  on  the  walls  were  found  upon  the 
ground.  [Compare  occupati  sunt  et  fuerunt  (Off.  i.  17)  :  the  differ- 
ence between  this  and  the  preceding  is,  that  occupatus  can  be  used 
only  as  an  adjective.] 

Predicate  Use. 

292.  The  Present  and  Perfect  participles  are  often 
used  as  a  predicate,  where  in  English  a  clause  would  be 
used  to  express  time,  cause,  occasion,  condition,  concession^ 
characteristic,  inanner^  circtimstance :  as, 

vereor  ne  turpe  sit  dicere  incipientem  (Mil.  i),  I  fear  it  may  he  a  dis- 
honor [to  me]  when  beginning  to  speak. 

salutem  insperantibus  reddidisti  (Marc.  7),  you  have  restored  a  safety 
which  we  did  not  hope. 

nemo  ei  neganti  non  credidisset  (Mil.  19),  no  one  would  have  disbelieved 
him  when  he  denied. 

Remark  —  This  use  is  especially  frequent  in  the  Ablative  Absolute. 
A  co-ordinate  clause  is  sometimes  compressed  into  a  perfect  participle  ; 
and  a  participle  with  a  negative  expresses  the  same  idea  which  in  Eng- 
lish is  given  by  without  :  as, 

imprudentibus  nostris  (B.  G.  v.  15),  while  our  men  were  not  looking. 

miserum  est  nihil  proficientem  angi  (N.  D.  iii.  5),  it  is  wretched  to  vex 
oneself  without  effecting  anything. 


Participles :  Predicate  Use.  207 

instructos  ordines  in  locum  aequum  deducit  (Sail.  C.  59),  he  draws  up 

the  lines ^  and  leads  them  to  level  ground. 
ut  hos  transductos  necaret  (B.  G.  v.  5),  that  he  might  carry  them  over 

and  put  them  to  death. 

a.  A  noun  and  passive  participle  are  often  so  united  that  the 
participle  and  not  the  noun  contains  the  main  idea  :  *  as, 

ante  conditam  condendamve  urbem  (Liv.  Pref.),  before  the  city  was 
built  or  building. 

illi  libertatem  civium  Romanorum  imminutam  non  tulerunt ;  vos  vi- 
tam  ereptam  negligetis  (Manil.  z^),they  did  not  endure  the  infringement 
of  the  citizens''  liberty  ;  will  you  disregard  the  destruction  of  their  life  ? 

b.  The  participle  with  a  noun  in  agreement,  or  in  the  neuter  as 
an  abstract  noun,  is  used  in  the  ablative  with  opus  {need) :  as, 

opus  est  viatico  facto  (Plant.  Trin.),  there  is  need  of  laying  in  provision. 
maturato  opus  est  (Liv.  viii.  13),  there  is  need  of  haste. 

c.  The  perfect  participle  with  habeo  (rarely  with  other  verbs) 
is  almost  the  same  in  meaning  as  a  perfect  active,  but  denotes  the 
continued  effect  of  the  verb  :  ^  as, 

fidem  quern  habent  spectatam  jam  et  din  cognitam  (Div.  C.  4),  my 
fidelity,  which  they  have  proved  and  long  known. 

d.  The  perfect  participle,  with  verbs  of  effecting^  effort.,  or  the 
like  ;  also  with  volo  where  esse  may  be  understood,  expresses 
more  forcibly  the  idea  of  the  verb  :  as, 

praefectos  suos  multi  misses  fecerunt  (Verr,  iv.  58),  many  discharged 

their  officers. 
hie  transactum  reddet  omne  (Capt.  345),  he  will  get  it  all  done. 
me  excusatum  volo  (Verr.  i.  40),  I  wish  to  be  excused  (compare  I  pray 

thee  have  me  excused). 

e.  The  present  participle  is  sometimes  nearly  equivalent  to  an 
infinitive,  but  expresses  the  action  more  vividly  after  verbs  of 
sense,  also  facio,  induco,  and  the  like  used  of  authors  :  as, 

Xenophon  facit  Socratem  disputantem  (N.  D,  i.  11),  Xenophon  repre- 
sents Socrates  disputing. 

Future  Participle. 

293.  The  Future  Participle  (except  futurus  and  ven- 
turns)  is  rarely  used  in  simple  agreement  with  a  noun, 
except  by  later  writers. 

1  Compare  the  participle  in  indirect  discourse  in  Greek  (G.  280) ;  and  the  Eng- 
lish, "  'Twas  at  the  royal  feast  for  Persia  won  "  (Dryden),  i.  e.  for  the  canqtiest 
of  Persia. 

2  The  perfect  with  have,  in  modem  languages,  has  grown  out  of  this  use  of 
haheo. 


208  Syntax  of  Participles. 

a.  The  future  participle  is  chiefly  used  with  esse  in  a  periphras- 
tic conjugation  (see  page  ']'])  :  as, 

morere,  Diagora,  non  enim  in  caelum  adscensurus  es  (Tusc.  i.  46), 

(//>,  for  you  are  not  likely  to  rise  to  heaven. 
sperat  adolescens  diu  se  victurum  (Cat.  M.  19),  the  young  man  hopes 

to  live  long. 
neque  petiturus  unquam  consulatum  videretur  (Off.  iii.  20),  and  seemed 

unlikely  ever  to  be  a  candidate  for  the  consulship. 

b.  By  later  writers  the  future  participle  is  also  used  in  simple 

agreement  to  express  likelihood,  purpose,  or  even  an  apodosis : 

as, 

cum  leo  regem  invasurus  incurreret  (Q.  C.  viii.  i),  when  a  lion  rushed 
on  to  attack  the  king. 

rediit  belli  casum  de  integro  tentaturus  (Liv.  xvii.  62),  he  returned  to 
try  the  chances  of  war  anew. 

ausus  est  rem  plus  famae  habituram  (id.  ii.  10),  he  dared  a  thing  which 

would  have  more  repute. 
disperses  per  agros  milites  equitibus  invasuris  (id.  xxxi.  36),  while  the 

horse  were  ready  to  attack  the  soldiers  scattered  through  the  fields  (a 

rare  use  of  the  Ablative  Absolute). 

c.  With  past  tenses  of  esse,  the  future  participle  is  often  equiv- 
alent to  the  pluperfect  subjunctive  (see  308.  d^  :  as, 

conclave  illud  ubi  erat  mansurus  si  ire  perrexisset  (Div.  i.  15),  that 
chamber  where  he  would  have  stayed  if  he  had  persisted  in  going. 

quid  facturi  fuistis  (Lig.  8),  what  were  you  going  to  do?  \=^  quid 
fecissetis  ;  which  would  be  logically  followed  by  si  venissetisy  <5r»r.]. 

Gerundive  (Future  Passive  Participle). 

294.  The  Gerundive,  in  its  participial  or  adjective  use, 
denotes  necessity  or  propriety. 

Note.  — The  participle  in  dus  has  two  distinct  uses,  viz.,  i.  the  Pre- 
dicate (participial  or  adjective)  use,  in  which  it  is  always  passive;  2.  the 
Gerundive  use  (see  295),  in  which  it  is  always  active  in  meaning,  having 
for  its  apparent  Object  the  noun  with  which  it  agrees  in  form.  In  the 
latter,  it  is  exactly  equivalent  to  the  Gerund  —  which  is  its  neuter  used 
impersonally  —  governing  the  noun  as  direct  object. 

a.  The  gerundive  is  sometimes  used,  like  the  present  and  perfect 

participles,  in  simple  agreement  with  a  noun :  as, 

fortem  et  conservandum  virum  (Mil.  38),  /?  brave  man,  and  worthy  to 
be  preserved. 

b.  The  most  frequent  use  of  this  form  by  far  is  with  esse  in  a  sec- 
ond periphrastic  conjugation  (p.  Tj)  (Passive  Periphrastic)  :  as, 

non  agitanda  res  crit  (Verr.  vi.  70),  will  not  the  thing  httve  to  be  agi- 
tated? 


Gerund  a?id  Geriuidive, 


209 


c.  The  neuter  of  the  gerundive  ^  is  occasionally  (chiefly  in  early 
Latin)  used  with  the  case  of  its  verb.  In  this  use  it  is  regular  with 
utor,  fruor,  &c.,  governing  the  ablative  :  as, 

agitandumst  vigilias  (PI.  Tr.  869),  I  have  got  to  stand  guard. 

via  quam  nobis  ingrediendum  sit  (C.  M.  2),  the  way  we  have  to  enter. 

utendum  exercitationibus  modicis  (id.  11),  we  must  use  moderate  exer- 
cise. 

legibus  parendum  est,  the  laws  must  be  obeyed. 

juveni  parandum,  seni  utendum  est  (Sen.  Ep.  36),  it  is  for  the  young 
to  get  J  for  the  old  to  enjoy. 

d.  The  gerundive  denotes  (Fut.  Pass.)  Purpose  after  verbs 
signifying  to  give,  deliver,  agree  for,  have,  receive,  undertake, 
demand :  ^  as, 

redemptor  qui  columnam  illam  conduxerat  faciendam  (Div.  ii.  21), 

the  contractor  who  had  undertaken  to  make  that  column  [the  regular 

construction  with  this  class  of  verbs], 
aedem  Castoris  habuit  tuendam  (Verr.  ii.  50),  he  had  the  temple  of 

Castor  to  take  care  of. 
naves  atque  onera  diligenter  adservanda  curabat  (id.  vi.  56),  he  took 

care  thai  the  ships  and  cargoes  should  be  kept. 

GERUND  AND  GERUNDIVE. 

295.  The  Gerund  is  a  verbal  noun,  governing  the  same 
case  as  its  verb,  but  governed  itself  like  a  noun  :  as, 

ars  bene  disserendi  et  vera  ac  falsa  dijudicandi  (De  Or.  ii.  38),  the  art 
of  discoursing  well,  and  distinguishing  the  true  and  false.  [Here  the 
verbal  nouns  discoursing  and  distinguishing,  if  used  in  the  nomina- 
tive, would  be  expressed  by  the  infinitive  disserere  and  dijudicare.] 

Remark.  —  The  use  of  the  Gerund,  in  the  oblique  cases,  corresponds 
to  the  use  of  the  Infinitive  as  Subject  (see  273),  its  nominative  form 
being  found  only  in  the  impersonal  use  of  the  participle  in  dus. 

296.  When  the  Gerund  would  have  an  object  in  the 
accusative,  the  Gerundive^  is  generally  used  instead, 
agreeing  with  the  noun,  and  in  the  case  which  the  gerund 
would  have  had  :  as, 

1  Sometimes  called  Nominative  of  the  Gerund.  (Compare  Greek  verbal  in  Tio<:, 
G.  281.) 

2  Such  verbs  are  accipio,  adnata,  attribuo,  conduca,  euro,  denata,  deposca,  do, 
divido,  edico,  edocea,  fera,  habeo,  laco,  mando,  obicio,  permitto,  peto,  pono,  praebeo, 
propono.,  relinqiio,  rogo,  sitscipio,  trado,  voveo,  dono. 

^  The  gerundive  construction  is  probably  the  original  one.  The  participle  in 
das  seems  to  have  had  a  present  passive  force  as  in  ante  condcndam  urbem. 


2IO  Gerundive  Constructions. 

paratiores  ad  omnia  pericula  subeunda  (B.  G.  i.  5),  readier  to  undergo 
all  dangers.  [Here  subeunda  agrees  with  pericula,  which  is  itself 
governed  by  ad:  the  construction  with  the  gerund  would  be,  aa 
subeundum  pericula  ;  ad  governing  the  gerund,  and  the  gerund 
governing  t^e  accusative  pericula^ 

exercendae  memoriae  gratia  (Off.  i.  15),  /or  the  sake  of  training  tJu 
memory.  [Here  the  gerund  construction  would  be,  exercendi  memo- 
riam.\ 

These  forms  may  be  seen  in  the  following :  — 
Gen.    consilium  I  ;;jbfJ"^^=^F„^^di  ]^  a  design  of  taking  tlu  cU,. 

DAT.    dat  operam  |  a|rU  toSs  |  he  attended  to  tUling  the  fields. 

Acc.    veniunt  ad  \  ^^  ^^^^^  \  '^0-  -^  to  seek  peace. 

ABL.    terittempus  {^^^^f^^]  he  spends  tin,ein^UingUUers. 

Remark.  —  The  verbs  utor,  f ruor,  &c.,  are  treated  like  verbs  gov- 
erning the  Accusative,  as  they  do  in  early  Latin ':  as, 

cxpetuntur  divitiae  ad  perfruendas  voluptates  (Off.  i.  8),  riches  are 
sought  for  the  enjoyment  of  pleasure. 

Gerund  and  Gerundive  Constructions. 

297.  The  Gerund  and  the  Gerundive  are  used,  in  the 
oblique  cases,  in  some  of  the  constructions  of  nouns. 

298.  The  Genitive  is  used  after  nouns  or  adjectives 
in  the  constructions  of  the  objective  genitive ;  more 
rarely  in  the  predicate  after  sum :  as, 

neque  consilii  habendi  neque  arma  capiendi  spatio  dato  (B.  G.  iv.  14), 
time  being  given  neither  for  forming  plans  nor  for  taking  arms  [object- 
ive genitive  after  spatio\. 

ne  conservandae  quidem  patriae  causa  (Off.  i  45),  not  even  in  order  to 
save  the  country  (originally  subjective,  see  214,^). 

Vivendi  finis  est  optimus  (Cat.  M.  20),  //  is  the  best  end  of  life. 

non  tarn  commutandarum  rerum  quam  evertendarum  cupidos  (id.  ii. 
I ),  desirous  not  so  much  of  changing  as  of  destroying  the  state. 

rotundus,  volvenda  dies  (Virg.),  flammandi  (Tac),  from  which  the  idea  of 
necessity  was  developed  through  that  of  futurity,  as  in  the  development  of  the 
subjunctive.  Consilium  urbis  dclcndae  would  have  meant  a  plan  of  a  city  being 
destroyed  [in  process  of  destruction],  then  about  to  be  destroyed,  then  to  be 
destroyed,  then  a  plan  of  destroying  the  city,  the  two  words  becoming  fused 
together  as  in  ab  iirbe  conditA.  The  genmd  is  simply  an  impersonal  use  of  the 
participle,  in  its  original  present  sense,  retaining  the  case  of  its  verb,  the  same  as 
in  agitandum  tst  vigilias ;  quid  opus  est  facto  ? 


Gerundive  Constructions,  21 1 

Remark. — In  the  predicate  use  of  the  genitive,  it  nearly  or  quite 
acquires  the  meaning  of  Purpose  :  as, 

quae  res  vertendae  reipublicae  solent  esse  (Verr.  iii.  53),  which  things 
genei-ally  tend  to  the  overthrow  of  the  commonwealth. 

si  arborum  trunci  deiciendi  operis  essent  missae  (B.  G.  iv.  17),  in  case 
trunks  of  trees  should  be  sent  dozvn  [with  the  object]  of  setting  the 
work  adrift  (Cf.  quas  sui  cofnmodi  fecerat,  B.  G.  v.  8). 

cognoscendae  antiquitatis  (Tac.  Ann.  ii.  59),  to  study  old  times. 

a.  The  genitive  of  the  Gerund  is,  in  a  few  cases,  used  (like  a 
noun)  with  the  genitive  of  an  object  agreeing  neither  in  gender 
nor  number :    as, 

ejus  videndi  cupidus  (Ter.  Hec),  eager  to  see  her. 

reiciendi  trium  judicum  potestas  (Inv.  ii.  2),  the  power  of  challenging 
three  jurors. 

sui  colligendi  facultas  (B.  G.  iii.  6),  the  opportunity  to  recauer  them- 
selves. [Here  sui,  though  referring  to  a  plural  subject,  is  really 
the  genitive  singular  neuter  of  suus.\ 

b.  In  the  genitive  of  gerundive  constructions  the  Gerund  and 
Gerundive  are  about  equally  common. 

299.  The  Dative  is  used  after  the  adjectives  (and 
rarely  nouns)  which  are  followed  by  the  dative  of 
nouns  :  as, 

genus  armorum  aptum  tegendis  corporibus  (Liv.  xxxii,  10),  a  sort  of 

armor  suited  to  the  defence  of  the  body. 
te  sociam  studeo  scribendis  versibus  esse  (Lucr.  i.  25),  /  desire  that 

thou  (Venus)  be  my  partner  in  writing  verses. 

a.  The  dative  is  used  also  in  a  few  expressions  after  verbs  :  as, 

reliqua  tempora  demetiendis  fructibus  et  percipiendis  accommodata 
sunt  (Cat.  M.  19),  the  other  seasons  are  fitted  to  reap  and  gather  in  the 
harvest. 

diem  praestitit  operi  faciendo  (Verr.  ii.  56),  he  appointed  a  day  for 
jioing  the  work. 

praeesse  agro  colendo  (Rose.  Am.  18),  to  take  charge  of  tillage. 

esse  solvendo,  to  be  able  to  pay.  , 

b.  The  dative  is  also  used  in  certain  phrases  belonging  to  the 
civil  law,  after  nouns  meaning  officers^  offices.,  elections,  &c. :  as, 

comitia  consulibus  rogandis    (Div.    i.    17),    elections  for  nominating 

consuls. 
triumvirum  coloniis  deducundis  (Jug.  42),  a  triumvir  for  planting 

colonies. 


212  Gerund  and  Supine, 

300.  The  Accusative  is  used  after  the  prepositions 
ad,  inter,  circa,  ob  (rarely  in  and  ante)  ;  most  frequently 
after  ad,  denoting  Purpose  :  as, 

vivis  non  ad  deponendam  sed  ad  confirmandam  audaciam  (Cat.  i.  2), 

you  live,  not  to  put  off,  but  to  confirm  your  daring, 
inter  agendum  (Eel.  ix.  24),  while  driving. 
me  vocas  ad  scribendum  (Or.  10), you  summon  me  to  write. 
nactus  aditus  ad  ea  conanda   (B.  C.  i.  31),  having  found  means  to 

undertake  these  things. 

301.  The  Ablative  is  used  to  express  Manner,^  Means, 
Cause,  &c.,  and  after  Comparatives  ;  and  after  the  prepo- 
sitions ab,  de,  ex,  in,  and  (rarely) /r<?  and  cum:  as, 

multa  pollicendo  persuadet  (Jug.  46),  he  persuades  by  large  promises, 

his  ipsis  legendis  (Cat.  M.  7),  by  reading  these  very  things. 

nullum  officium  referenda  gratia  magis  necessarium  est  (Off.  i.  15), 

no  duty  is  more  important  than  repaying  favors, 
in  re  gerenda  versari  (Cat.  M.  6),  to  be  employed  in  affairs. 
Latine  loquendo  cuivis  par  (Brut.  34),  equal  to  any  man  in  speaking 

Latin. 

nullis  virtutis  praeceptis  tradendis  (Off.  i.  2),  without  delivering  any 
precepts  of  virtue. 

obscuram  atque  humilem  conciendo  ad  se  multitudinem  (Liv.  i.8), 
calling  to  them  a  mean  and  obscure  multitude. 

Remark.  —  The  gerund  is  occasionally  found  in  apposition 
with  a  noun  :   as, 

ad  res  diversissimas,  parendum   atque  imperandum  (Livy,  xxi.  3), 
for  the  most  widely  different  things  obeying  and  commanding. 

SUPINE. 
^    Note.  —  The  supine  is  a  verbal  abstract  of  the  fourth  declen- 
/sion,  having  no  distinction  of  tense  or  person,  and  is  limited  to 
two  uses.     The  form  in  um  is  the  accusative  of  the  end  of  motion.— 
The  form  in  u  is  probably  dative  oi  purpose,  though  possibly  the 
ablative  has  been  confused  with  it. 

soa  The  Former  Supine  (in  um)  is  used  after  verbs 
of  motion  to  express  the  purpose  of  the  motion  ;  it  gov- 
erns the  case  of  its  verb :  as, 

'  In  this  use  the  ablative  of  the  gerund  is,  in  later  writers,  nearly  equivalent 
tf)  a  present  participle.  From  the  ablative  of  manner  comes  the  Italian  and 
Spanihh  form  of  the  participle,  the  true  participial  form  becoming  an  adjective. 


The  Supine.  213 

quid  est,  imusne  sessum  ?  etsi  monitum  venimus  te,  non  flagitatum 
(De  Or,  iii.  5),  how  now,  shall  we  be  seated?  though  we  have  come  to 
remind  not  to  entreat  you. 

nuptuin  collocasse  (B.  G.  i.  18),  to  establish  in  marriage. 

venerunt  questum  injurias  (Liv.  iii.  25),  they  came  to  complain  of 
wrongs. 

Remark.  —  The  supine  in  um  is  used  especially  after  eo ;  and 
with  the  passive  infinitive  iri  forms  the  future  infinitive  passive  :  as, 

fuere  cives  qui  rempubHcam  perditum  irent  (Sail.  C.  36),  there  were 
citizens  who  went  about  to  ruin  the  republic  (compare  258.  Rem.). 

non  Grais  servitum  matribus  ibo  (v5£n.  ii.  y^G),/  shall  not  go  to  be  a  slave 
to  the  Grecian  dames. 

si  scisset  se  trucidatum  iri  (Div.  ii.  9),  if  he  [Pompey]  had  known  that 
he  was  going  to  be  murdered. 

303.  The  latter  Supine  (in  u)  ^  is  used  only  with  a 
few  adjectives,  with  the  nouns  fas,  nefas,  and  optis,  and 
rarely  with  verbs,  to  denote  an  action  in  reference  to 
which  the  quality  is  asserted  :  as, 

0  rem  non  modo  visu  foedam,  sed  etiam  auditu  (Phil.  ii.  25),  a  thing 
not  only  shocking  to  see,  but  even  to  hear  of. 

quaerunt  quid  optimum  factu  sit  (Verr.  ii.  27),  they  ask  what  is 
best  to  do. 

humanum  factu  aut  inceptu  (Andr.  236),  a  human   thing  to  do  or 

undertake. 
si  hoc  fas  est  dictu  (Tusc.  v.  13),  if  this  is  lawful  to  say. 
pudet  dictu  (Agric.  32),  it  is  shame  to  tell. 

Remark.  —  The  supine  in  u  is  found  especially  with  such  adjectives 
as  indicate  an  effect  on  the  senses  or  the  feelings,  and  those  which 
denote  ease,  difficulty,  and  the  like.  But  with  facilis,  difficilis,  jucundus, 
the  construction  of  ad  with  the  gerund  is  more  common.  The  Infini- 
tive is  often  used  in  the  same  signification,  by  the  poets,  with  all  these 
adjectives. 

1  The  only  latter  supines  in  common  use  are  auditu^  dictu,  factu,  inventu,  me- 
nioratu,  natu,  visu.  In  classic  use  it  is  found,  in  all,  in  twenty-foiu-  verbs.  It  is 
never  followed  by  an  object-case. 


214  Conditional  Senteftces. 


Chapter  IV. —  Conditional  Sentences. 

Note.  —  The  Conditional  Sentence  differs  from  other  compound  sen- 
tences in  this,  that  the  form  of  the  main  clause  (apodosis)  is  determined 
in  some  degree  by  the  nature  of  the  subordinate  clause  (protasis),  upon 
the  truth  of  which  the  whole  statement  depends.  Like  all  compound 
sentences,  however,  it  has  arisen  from  putting  together  two  independ- 
ent statements,  which  in  time  became  so  closely  united  as  to  make  one 
modified  statement.  Thus  —  Speak  the  word:  my  servant  shall  be 
healed  is  an  earlier  form  of  expression  than  If  thou  speak  the  word.  The 
Conditional  Particles  were  originally  independent  pronouns  :  thus  si  is 
a  weak  demonstrative  of  the  same  origin  as  sic  {si-ce  like  hi-ce),  and 
has  the  primitive  meaning  of  in  that  tvay^  or  in  some  way.  In  its  origin 
the  Condition  was  of  two  kinds.  Either  it  was  assumed  and  stated  as 
a  fact^  or  it  was  expressed  as  a  mild  command.  From  the  first  have 
come  all  the  uses  of  the  Indicative  in  protasis  ;  from  the  latter  all  the 
uses  of  the  Subjunctive  in  protasis.  The  Apodosis  has  either  the 
Indicative  expressing  the  conclusion  as  a  fact ;  and  the  Present  and 
Perfect  Subjunctive,  expressing  it  originally  2iS  future  —  hence  more  or 
less  doubtful — or  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  as  futurum  in pmterito^^ 
and  so  unfulfilled  in  the  present  or  past.  Thus  rides,  majore  cachinno 
concutitur  is  the  original  form  for  the  Indicative  in  protasis  and  apodo- 
sis ;  si  rides  only  means  "  in  some  way  or  other,"  &c.  So  roges  Aristonem^ 
neget  is  the  original  form  of  the  subjunctive  in  protasis  and  apodosis ;  si 
roges  would  mean  *'  ask  in  some  way  or  other."  The  imperfect  rogares 
transfers  the  command  to  past  time,2  with  the  meaning  "  suppose  you 
had  asked,"  and  si  would  have  the  same  meaning  as  before  ;  while  fiegaret 
transfers  the  future  idea  of  neget  to  past  time,  and  means  "  he  was  going 
to  deny."  Now  the  stating  of  this  supposition  at  all  gives  rise  to  the 
implication  that  it  is  untrue  in  point  of  fact,  —  because,  if  it  were  true, 
there  would  ordinarily  be  no  need  to  state  it  as  a  supposition  :  it  would 
then  be  a  simple  fact,  put  in  the   indicative.^      Such   a  condition  or 

1  The  futurum  in  pra:terito  is  a  tense  relatively  future  to  a  time  absolutely 
past,  expressing  a  future  act  transferred  to  the  point  of  viciv  of  past  time,  and 
hence  is  naturally  expressed  by  a  past  tense  of  the  Subjunctive  :  thus  dixisset  = 
dicturus  fuit.  As  that  which  looks  towards  the  future  from  some  point  in  the 
past  has  a  natural  limit  in  present  time,  such  a  tense  (imperfect  subjunctive)  came 
naturally  to  be  used  to  express  a  present  condition  purely  ideal,  that  is  to  say, 
contrary  to  fact. 

2  Compare /('////J  dkeret,  "he  should  rather  have  said  "  (266.  *). 

^  There  are,  however,  some  cases  in  which  this  implication  does  not  arise :  as, 
decies  centena  dedisses^  nil  erat  in  loculis  (Hor.  Sat.  i.  3,  15). 


Implied  Conditions 


Protasis  and  Apodosis.  215 

conclusion  — originally  past,  meaning  suppose  you  had  asked  [yesterday] 
he  ivas  going  to  deny  —  came  to  express  an  unfulfilled  condition  in  the 
present  ;  just  as  in  English  ought,  which  originally  meant  owed^^  has 
come  to  express  a  present  obligation. 

Conditional  Sentences  may  be  classified  as  follows;  — 

1.  Simple  Present  or  Past  Conditions,  nothing  implied  as  to  fulfilnient: 

Indicative,  Present  or  Past. 

T?  ,^.,„^  r-^^^.T^T^.ro  .     (  ^-  More  vivid  (probable) :  Future  Indicative. 

2.  Future  Conditions  :     j  ^_  Less  vivid  (improbable)  :  Present  Subjunctive. 

3.  Conditions  Contrary  (  a.  Present :  Imperfect  Subjunctive. 

TO  Fact  :  (  b.   Past :  Pluperfect  Subjunctive. 

i  a.   Indefinite  :  id  person,  Subjunctive. 

4.  General  Conditions  :   <  b.  Repeated  Action  :  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  with 

(  Indicative  in  Apodosis. 

T^.       .     ,  (  in  clause  of  Fact,  Wish,  Command. 

Uisgmsea  I  jj^  Participial  Expression, 

rk    -ff  ^  J  Potential  Subjunctive, 

umittea  j  Subjunctive  of  Modesty. 

Protasis  and  Apodosis. 

304.  In  a  Conditional  Sentence  the  clause  containing 
the  condition  is  called  the  Protasis  ;  and  that  contain- 
ing the  conclusion  is  called  the  Apodosis  :  as, 

si  qui  exire  volunt  [protasis]  conrvere possum  [apodosis],  (Cat.  ii.  12), 
if  any  ivish  to  depart,  I  can  keep  my  eyes  shut. 

a.  The  Protasis  is  regularly  introduced  by  the  conditional  par- 
ticle si  (if)  or  one  of  its  compounds. 

Note.  —  These  compounds  are  sin,  nisi,  etiamsi,  etsi,  tametsi, 
tamenetsi  (see  Conditional  and  Concessive  Particles,  155.  d.,  f). 
An  Indefinite  Relative,  or  any  relative  or  concessive  word,  may 
also  serve  to  introduce  a  conditional  clause  (see  316). 

b.  The  Apodosis  —  except  in  some  forms  of  General  Condition 
—  regularly  corresponds  in  Mood  v^ith  the  Protasis  :  as, 

si  mones  audit,  if  you  advise,  he  hears. 
si  monebis  audiet,  if  you  advise,  he  will  hear. 
si  moneas  audiat,  if  you  should  [hereafter]  advise  he  would  hear. 
si  moneres  audiret,  if  you  were  now  advising  he  would  hear. 
si  monuisses  audivisset,  if  you  had  [before]  advised  he  would  have 
heard. 

Note.  —  The  apodosis  is  often  introduced  by  some  correlative 
word  or  phrase  :  as,  sic^  ita,  turn,  ea  condkione,  etc. 


^  '•  There  was  a  certain  lender  which  o-.igiit  him  five  hundrea  pieces."'  —  Ty) 
daWsN.   T. 


2l6  Conditional  Sentences, 

c.  The  Apodosis,  being  the  principal  clause  of  its  own  sentence, 
may  depend  in  form  on  the  grammatical  structure  of  the  fnain  sen- 
tence^  and  so  require  a  Participle,  an  Infinitive,  or  a  Phrase  :  as, 

quod  si  praeterea  nemo  sequatur,  tamen  se  cum  sola  decima  legione 
iturum  (B.  G.  i.  40),  but  if  no  one  else  would  follow,  he  would  go  with 
the  tenth  legion  alone. 

si  quos  adversum  proelium  commoveret,  hos  reperire  posse  (id.),  if 
the  loss  of  a  battle  alarmed  any,  they  might  find,  dr^c. 

sepultura  quoque  prohibituri,  ni  rex  humari  jussisset  (Q.  C.  viii.  2), 
intending  also  to  deprive  him  of  burial,  unless  the  king  had  ordered  him 
to  be  interred. 

Note.  —  When  the  Apodosis  is  itself  in  Indirect  Discourse,  or 

in  any  dependent  construction,  the  verb  of  the  Protasis  (as  in  the 

first  two  of  the  above  examples)  is  always  in  the  Subjunctive  (see 

337,  P-  250). 

d.  A  Particular  Condition  is  one  which  refers  to  a  definite  act 
or  series  of  acts  occurring  at  some  definite  time ;  a  General  Con- 
dition refers  to  any  one  of  a  class  of  acts  which  may  occur  (or  may 
have  occurred)  at  any  time.^ 

Classification. 

305.  The  principal  or  typical  Forms  of  conditional 
sentences  may  be  exhibited  as  follows :  — 

a.  Simple  Condition,  nothing  being  implied  as  to  fulfilment 
(Indicative  Mood)  :  — 

1.  Present  :  si  adest  bene  est,  if  he  is  [now]  here  it  is  well, 

2.  Past  :  si  aderat  bene  erat,  if  he  was  [then]  here  it  7vas  well. 

b.  Future  Condition,  necessarily  as  yet  unfulfilled  :  — 

1.  More  vivid  (Probable) :  si  aderit  bene  erit,  if  he  is  [shall  l>e] 

here  it  will  be  well.    N.  B.   Eng.  uses  pres.  for  fut. 

2.  Less  vivid  (Improbable) :  si  adsit^  bene  sit,  if  he  should  [here- 

after] be  here  it  would  be  well. 

*  These  two  classes  of  conditions  are  distinguished  logically ;  and  in  most  lan- 
guages are  also  distinguished  grammatically,  —  but  only  as  to  Present  and  Past 
Conditions.  In  Latin,  va  particular  conditions,  present  or  past  tenses  of  the  In- 
dicative are  regularly  used  in  Protasis,  where  no  opinion  is  intimated  of  its  truth 
or  falsity ;  and  the  Apodosis  may  take  any  form  of  the  verb  which  can  be  used  in 
an  independent  sentence.  In  general  conditions  (or  at  least  what  would  be  such 
in  Greek),  also,  referring  to  Present  or  Past  time,  the  Indicative  is  for  the  most 
part  used  both  in  Protasis  and  Apodosis.  (Compare  Goodwin's  Greek  Grammar, 
%  220.) 

*  Corresponding  to  the  Greek  Optative. 


Forms  of  Conditions.  217 

c.  Condition  contrary  to  fact,  unfulfilled  in  present  or  past  (im- 
perfect and  pluperfect  Subjunctive)  :  — 

1.  Present,     si  adesset  ^  bene  esset,  if  he  were  [now J  here  it  would 

be  well. 

2.  Past,    si  adfuisset  ^  bene  fuisset,  if  he  had  [then]  been  here  it 

would  have  been  well. 

d.  General  condition  :  — 

1 .  Indefinite,    si  hoc  dicas  ^  creditur,  if  one  says  this  it  is  [always] 

believed. 

2.  Repeated,     si  quid  diceret*  credebatur,  if  [whenever]  he  said 

any  thing  {  =  whatever  he  said)  //  was  believed  (a  late  use). 

Remark.  — The  use  of  tenses  in  Protasis  is  very  loose  in  English. 
Thus  if  he  is  alive  now  is  a  PRESENT  condition,  to  be  expressed  in  Latin 
by  the  Present  Indicative ;  if  he  is  alive  next  year  is  a  future  condition, 
and  would  be  expressed  by  the  Future  Indicative.  Again,  if  he  were  here 
now  is  a  PRESENT  condition  contrary  to  fact,  and  would  be  expressed  by 
the  Imperfect  Subjunctive  ;  if  he  were  to  see  me  thus  is  a  future  con- 
dition, to  be  expressed  by  the  Present  Subjunctive ;  and  so  too,  if  you 
advised  him  he  would  attend  may  be  future. 

Simple  Conditions. 

306.  In  a  Present  or  Past  condition  whose  falsity  is 
NOT  implied,  the  appropriate  tenses  of  the  Indicative 
are  used  in  Protasis;  the  apodosis  expressing  the  re- 
sult in  any  grammatical  form  required:   as, 

si  tu  exercitusque  valetis,  bene  est  (Fam.  v.  2),  if  you  and  the  army  are 

well  it  is  well. 
si  justitia  vacat,  in  vitio  est  (Off.  i.  19),  if  justice  be  wanting  it  [bravery] 

is  in  fault. 
si  placet  .  .  .  videamus  (Cat.  M.  5),  if  you  please,  let  us  see. 
fuerit  hoc  censoris,  si  judicabat   (Div.  i.  i6),  grant  that  it  was  the 

censor's  duty  in  case  he  judged  it  false. 

Future  Conditions. 

307.  A  Future  condition  may  either,  i.  make  a  dis- 
tinct supposition  of  a  future  case,  the  apodosis  expressing 
what  will  be  the  result ;  or,  2.  the  supposition  may  be 
less  distinct  and  vivid,  the  apodosis  expressing  what 
would  be  the  result  in  the  case  supposed. 

*  Corresponding  to  the  Greek  Imperfect  (Indicative),  with  av  in  apodosis. 

*  Corresponding  to  the  Greek  Aorist  (Indicative),  with  a.v  in  apodosis. 
3  Corresponding  to  the  Greek  Subjunctive  with  av. 

*  Corresponding  to  the  Greek  Optative. 


2i8  Coftditional  Sentences, 

a.  If  the  condition  is  stated  vividly,  so  as  to  be  conceived  as 
actually  about  to  take  place  (English  present  indicative,  rarely  fut- 
ure with  shall),  the  Future  Indicative  is  used  in  both  protasis 
and  apodosis :  as, 

sanabimur  si  volemus  (Tusc.  iii.  6),  we  shall  be  healed  if  we  wish. 
quod  si  legere  aut  audire  voletis  .  .  .  reperietis  (Cat.  M.  6),  if  you 
read  or  hear,  you  will  find. 

b.  The  present  subjunctive,  in  both  protasis  and  apodosis,  ex- 
presses a  future  condition  less  vividly^  or  as  less  probable,  than 
when  the  future  indicative  is  used  (English  should)  :  as, 

haec  si  tecum  patria  loquatur,  nonne  impetrare  debeat  (Cat.  i.  8), 
if  thy  country  should  thus  speak  with  thee,  ought  she  not  to  prevail? 

quod  si  quis  deus  mihi  largiatur  .  .  .  valde  recusem  (Cat.  M.  23), 
but  if  some  god  were  to  grant  me  this,  I  should  stoutly  refuse. 

Remark. — The  present  subjunctive  sometimes  stands  in  protasis 
with  the  future  in  apodosis  from  a  change  in  the  point  of  view  of  the 
speaker.  1 

^.  If  the  conditional  act  is  regarded  as  completed  before  that 
of  the  apodosis  begins,  the  Future  Perfect  is  substituted  for  the 
future.,  and  the  Perfect  subjunctive  for  the  Present:  as, 

sin  cum  potuero,  non  venero,  tum  erit  inimicus  (Att.  ix.  2),  but  if  I 

do  not  come  when  I  can,  he  will  be  unfriendly. 
si  non  feceris,  ignoscam  (Fam.  v.  19),  if  you  do  not  do  it  I  will  excuse 

you. 

Remark.  —  This  is  a  very  common  construction  in  Latin,  owing 
to  the  tendency  of  the  language  to  represent  an  action  as  complettd^ 
rather  than  as  in  progress. 

d.  Any  form  denoting  or  implying  future  time  may  stand  in  the 
apodosis  of  a  future  condition  (so  the  participles  in  dua  and  rus, 
and  verbs  of  necessity,  possibility,  and  the  like)  :  as, 

non  possum  istum  accusare  si  cupiam  (Verr.  v.  41),  /  cannot  accuse 

him  if  I  should  desire. 
alius  finis  constituendus  est  si  prius  quid  maxinie  reprehendere  Scipio 

solitus  sit  dixero  (Lael.  16),  another  limit  must  be  set  if  I  first  slate 

what  Scipio  was  wont  most  to  find  fault  with. 

*  It  often  depends  entirely  upon  the  view  of  the  writer  at  the  moment,  and  not 
upon  the  nature  of  the  condition  whether  it  shall  be  stated  vividly  or  not ;  as  In  the 
proverbial  "If  the  sky  falls  we  shall  catch  larks,"  the  impossible  condition  is  iron- 
ically put  in  the  vivid  form,  to  illustrate  the  absurdity  of  some  other  supposed 
condition  stated  by  some  one  else. 


Conditions  Contrary  to  Fact.  219 

e.  Rarely  the  perfect  is  used  (rhetorically)  in  apodosis  with  a 
present  or  even  future  in  protasis,  representing  the  conclusion  as 
already  accomplished :  as, 

si  hoc  bene  fixum  in  animo  est,  vicistis  (Liv.  xxi.  44),  if  this  is  well 
fixed  in  your  minds, you  have  conquered  [ior  you  will  have  conquered]. 

si  eundem  [animum]  habueritis,  vicimus  (id.  43),  if  you  shall  have 
kept  the  same  spirit,  we  have  conquered. 

f.  Frequently  the  present  subjunctive  of  a  future  condition 
becomes  imperfect  by  the  sequence  of  tenses  or  some  other  cause 
(retaining  the  same  force  relatively  to  past  time)  :  as, 

non  poterat  nisi  vellet  (B.  C.  iii.  44),  was  not  able  unless  he  %vished  (com- 
pare d,  above). 

Caesar  si  peteret  .  .  .  non  quicquam  proficeret  (Hor.  Sat.  i.  3),  if 
even  Ccesar  were  to  ask  he  would  gain  nothing.  [Here  the  construc- 
tion is  not  contrary  to  fact,  but  is  simply  si  petat  non  proficiat, 
thrown  into  past  time.] 

tumulus  apparuit  .  .  si  luce  palam  iretur  hostis  praeventurus  erat 
(Liv.  xxii.  24),  a  hill  appeared  .  .  .  if  they  should  go  openly  by  light 
the  enemy  %vould prevent.  [Independent  of  apparuit,  this  would  be, 
si  eatzir,  praeventurus  est,  for  praeveniat.\ 

Conditions  Contrary  to  Fact. 

308.  In  the  statement  of  a  supposition  known  to  be 
false,  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  subjunctive  are 
used,^  —  the  imperfect  referring  to  Present  Time,  the 
pluperfect  to  Past :   as, 

quae  si  exsequi  nequirem,  tamen  me  lectulus  oblectaret  meus  (Cat. 

M.  11),  if  I  could  not  [now]  follow  this  [an  active  life]  yet  my  couch 

would  afford  me  pleasure. 
nisi  tu  amisisses,  nunquam  recepissem  (id.  4),  unless  you  had  lost  it, 

I shotdd  not  have  recovered  it. 
si  meum  consilium   auctoritasque  valuisset,  tu  hodie  egeres,  nos 

liberi  essemus,  respublica  non  tot  duces  et  exercitus  amisisset 

(Phil.  ii.  15),  if  my  judgment  and  authority  had  prevailed  [as  they  did 

not],  you  would  this  day  be  a  beggar,  we  shotdd  be  free,  and  the  republic 

would  not  have  lost  so  many  leaders  and  armies. 
qui  nisi  revertisset,  in  eo  conclavi  ei  cubandum  fuisset,  quod  proxima 

nocte  conruit  :  ruina  igitur  oppressus  esset ;  at  id  neque  si  fatum 

fuerat  effugisset,  nee  si  non  fuerat  in  eum  casum  incidisset  (Div. 

ii.  8),  if  it  had  been  decreed  by  fate,  he  would  not  have  escaped,  dx^c. 

[The  apodosis  of  fuerat  is  not  effugisset,  but  the  whole  conditional 

sentence  of  which  effugisset  is  the  apodosis ;   the  real  protasis  of 

effugisset  is  revertisset,  above.] 

^  The  implication  of  falsity,  in  this  construction,  is  not  inherent  in  the  Sub- 
junctive ;  but  comes  from  the  transfer  of  a  future  condition  to  past  time.  Thus 
the  time  for  the  happening  of  the  condition  has,  at  the  time  of  writing,  already 


220  Conditional  Sentences. 

«.  In  many  cases  the  imperfect  refers  to  past  time,  both  in  pro- 
tasis and  apodosis,  especially  when  a  repeated  or  continued  action 
is  denoted,  or  when  the  condition  if  true  would  still  exist :  as, 

hie  si  mentis  esset  suae,  ausus  esset  educere  exercitum  (Pis.  21), 
if  he  were  of  sane  mind  woiUd  he  have  dared  to  lead  out  the  army  ? 
[Here  esset  denotes  a  continued  state,  past  as  well  as  present.] 

non  concidissent,  nisi  illud  receptaculum  classibus  nostris  pateret 
(Verr.  ii.  i),  [the  power  of  Carthage]  wotdd  not  have  fallen,  mdess 
that  station  had  been  open  to  our  fleets  (without  the  condition,  patebat). 


Remark.  —  This  necessarily  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  pluperfect 
is  equivalent  to  a  future  perfect  in  prceterito,  and  so  represents  the  action 
as  completed  and  momentary,  rather  than  continuing. 

b.  The  past  tenses  of  the  Indicative  in  apodosis  (after  a  Sub- 
junctive in  protasis)  may  be  used  to  express  what  ought  to  have 
been  done,  was  intended  or  already  begun  (see  31 1.  ^)  :  as, 

si  Romae   privatus   esset   hoc   tempore,  tamen   is   erat  deligendus 

(Manil.   17),  if  he  [Pompey]  were  at  this  time  a  private  citizen  in 

Rome,  yet  he  ought  to  be  appointed. 
quod  esse  caput  debebat  si  probari  posset  (Fin.  iv.  9),  what  ought 

to  be  the  main  point  if  it  could  be  proved. 
si  licitum  esset   matres  veniebant   (Verr.  vi.  49),  the  mothers  were 

coming  f  it  had  been  allowed  (see  305.  c  ^). 
in  amplexus  filiae  ruebat,  nisi  lictores  obstitissent  (Ann.  xvi.  32), 

he  was  about  rushing  into  his  daughter's  arms,  unless  the  lictors  had 

opposed. 

Remark.  —  In  this  use,  the  imperfect  indicative  corresponds  in  time 
to  the  imperfect  subjunctive,  and  the  perfect  or  pluperfect  indicative  to 
the  pluperfect  subjunctive.  The  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  may  how- 
ever be  used  as  well  (see  Note,  above)  :  as, 

satius  erat  (  =  esset),  it  were  better. 

c.  The  use  of  the  indicative  in  apodosis  is  regular  with  all  verbs 
and  expressions  denoting  the  necessity,  propriety,  desirableness^ 
duty,  possibility,  of  an  action,  where  it  is  implied  that  what  was 
necessary,  &c.,  has  not  been  done.^  It  is  sometimes  carried  still 
further  in  poetry :  as, 

nam  nos  decebat  lugere  (Tusc.  i.  47),  it  wotdd  befit  us  to  mourn. 

si  non  alium  jactaret  odorem,  laurus  erat  (Georg.  ii.  133),  it  were  a 
laurel,  but  for  giving  out  a  different  odor. 
__________ ^ — ^^^___^___^^^_^— ^« 

passed  ;  so  that,  if  the  condition  remains  a  condition,  it  must  be  contrary  to  fact. 
So  past  forms  implying  a  future  frequently  take  the  place  of  the  subjunctive  in  apo- 
dosis in  this  construction  (seerf,  below,  and  head-note). 

'  Observe  that  all  these  expressions  contain  the  idea  of  Futurity.  Compare 
note  above. 


General  Conditions.  221 

d.  The  participle  in  urus  with  fui  is  nearly  equivalent  to  a 
pluperfect  subjunctive.  Hence,  when  the  Apodosis  is  itself  a 
dependent  clause,  requiring  the  infinitive  or  subjunctive,  a  pluper- 
fect subjunctive  may  be  represented  by  the  Future  Participle  with 
the  proper  form  of  fui  (compare  Indirect  Discourse:  ZTH)' 

quid  enim  futurum  fuit  [=fuissetj,  si  .  .  .  (Liv.  ii.  \)^  what  would 
have  happened  if ,  <Sr=r. 

neque  ambigitur  quin  ...  id  facturus  fuerit,  si  .  .  .  (id.),  nor  is 
there  any  question  he  would  have  done  it  if  ^c.  [dir,  disc.  fecisset\. 

ex  quo  intellegi  potest  quam  acuti  natura  sint,  qui  haec  sine  doctrina 
credituri  fuerint  (Tusc.  i.  21),  hence  it  may  be  understood  how  keen 
they  are  by  nature,  who,  without  instruction,  would  have  believed  this. 
[Here  the  condition  is  contained  in  the  words  sine  doctrina.] 

adeo  parata  seditio  fuit,  ut  Othonem  rapturi  fuerint,  ni  incerta 
noctis  timuissent  (Tac.  H.  i.  26),  so  far  advanced  zvas  the  conspiracy 
that  they  would  have  seized  upon  Otho,  had  they  not  feared  the  haz- 
ards of  the  night.    [In  the  direct  discourse,  rapuissent  ni  timuissent^ 

General  Conditions. 

309.  General  conditions  are  distinguished  in  Latin  in 
only  two  cases  :  viz., 

a.  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  the  second  person  singular,  to 
denote  the  act  of  an  Indefinite  Subject  {you  =  any  one).  Here 
the  Indicative  of  a  general  truth  may  stand  in  the  apodosis  :  as, 

mens  prope  uti  ferrum  est :  si  exerceas  conteritur ;  nisi  exerceas, 
rubiginem  contrahit  (Cato  de  Mor.),  the  mind  is  very  like  iron :  if 
you  use  it,  it  wears  away  ;  if  you  don  t  use  it,  it  gathers  nest. 

virtutem  necessario  gloria,  etiamsi  tu  id  non  agas,  consequitur  (Tusc. 
i.  38),  glory  necessarily  follows  virtue,  even  if  that  is  not  one's  aim. 

si  prohibita  impune  transcenderis,  neque  metus  ultra  neque  pudor 
est  (Ann.  iii.  54),  if  you  once  overstep  the  bounds  with  impunity,  there 
is  no  fear  nor  shame  any  more. 

si  cederes  placabilis  (Tac.  Ann.),  \he  was]  easily  appeased  if  one  yielded. 

b.  In  later  writers  (not  in  Cicero),  the  tenses  of  the  subjunctive 
are  used  in  potasis,  with  tenses  of  the  Indicative  in  apodosis,  to 
state  a  Repeated  or  Customary  action:  as, 

accusatores,  si  facultas  incideret,  poenis  adficiebantur  (Ann.  vi.  30), 
the  accusers,  whenever  opportunity  offered,  tvere  visited  with  punishment, 

c.  In  all  other  cases,  general  suppositions  —  including  those 
introduced  by  Indefinite  Relatives  —  take  the  Indicative. 

Note.  —  In  many  sentences  properly  conditional,  the  subordinate 
member  is  not  expressed  as  a  conditional  clause ;  but  is  stated  in  some 
other  form  of  words,  or  is  implied  in  the  nature  of  the  thought. 


222  Conditiofial  Sentences, 

Condition  Disgruised. 

310.  The  condition  is  often  contained  in  some  other 
form  of  words  than  a  regular  Protasis,  in  the  same  clause 
or  sentence. 

a.  The  condition  may  be  contained  in  a  Relative,  Participial,  or 
other  qualifying  clause  :  as, 

facile  me  paterer  —  vel  ipso  quaerente,  vel  apud  Cassianos  judices  — 
pro  Sex.  Roscio  dicere  (Rose.  Am.  30),  /  would  readily  allow  my- 
self to  speak  for  Roscius,  if  he,  dj^c. 

non  mihi,  nisi  admonito,  venisset  in  mentem  (De  Or.  ii.  42),  //  would 
not  have  come  into  mind,  unless  [I  had  been]  reminded  [  =  nisi  admon- 
itus  essem]. 

nulla  alia  gens  tanta  mole  cladis  non  obruta  esset  (Liv.  xxii.  ^),  there 
is  no  other  people  that  would  not  have  been  crushed  by  stuh  a  weight  of  dis- 
aster [i.e.  IF  It  had  been  any  other  people]. 

nemo  unquam,  sine  magna  spe  immortalitatis,  se  pro  patria  offerret  ad 
mortem  (Tusc.  i.  15),  no  one,  without  great  hope  of  immortality,  would 
ever  expose  himself  to  death  for  his  country. 

quid  hunc  paucorum  annorum  accessio  juvare  potuisset  (Lael.  3), 
what  good  could  the  addition  of  a  few  years  have  done  him  [if  he  had 
had  them]  ? 

b.  The  condition  may  be  contained  in  a  Wish,  or  expressed  as  a 
Command,  by  the  imperative  or  hortatory  subjunctive  :  •  as, 

utinam  quidem  fuissem  !  molestus  nobis  non  esset  (Fam.  xii.  3),  / 
wish  I  had  been  [chief]  :  he  would  not  now  be  troubling  us  [i.e.  if  I 
had  been]. 

roges  enim  Aristonem,  neget  (Fin.  iv.  2^,  for  ask  Aristo,  hewoulddeny. 
toUe   hanc   opinionem,  luctum  sustuleris   (Tusc.  i.  13),  remove  this 
notion,  and  you  will  have  done  away  grief  j 

naturam  expellas  furca,  tamen  usque  recurret  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  10),  drive   \ 
out  nature  with  a  pitchfork,  still  she  will  ever  return. 

manent  ingenia  senibus,  modo  permaneat  studium  et  industria  (Cat. 
M.  7),  old  men  keep  their  mental  powers,  only  let  them  keep  their  zeal  \ 
and  diligence.  \ 

c.  Rarely,  the  condition  is  stated  in  an  independent  clause  :  as, 

rides  :  majore  cachinno  concutitur  (Juv.  iii.  100), you  laugh  ;  he  shakes  j 
7vith  louder  laughter.  | 

de    paupertate   agitur :    multi   patientes   pauperes    commemorantur    i 
(Tusc.  iii.  24),  7ve  speak  of  poverty  ;  many  pa/ient  poor  are  mentioned.    ' 


*  This  usage  is  probably  the  origin  of  the  use  of  the  subjunctive  in  Protasis ; 
the  subjunctive  being  used  tirst,  as  in  266,  while  the  conditional  particle  is  a  form    \ 
of  an  indefinite  pronoun.  i 


Implied  Conditions.  223 

Condition  Omitted. 

311.  The  condition  is  often  wholly  omitted,  but  may 
be  inferred  from  the  course  of  the  argument. 

Remark.  —  Under  this  head  belong  all  the  apparently  independent 
uses  of  the  subjunctive  not  mentioned  in  265.  a.  In  this  use  the  perfect 
subjunctive  is  especially  common,  in  the  same  sense  as  the  present,  re 
f erring  to  the  immediate  future ;  the  imperfect  to  past  time  (not  to 
present,  as  in  266.  e). 

a.  The  present  and  perfect  subjunctive  (often  with  forsitan  or 
the  like)  are  used  to  denote  an  action  as  Possible  ;  also,  the  second 
person  singular  of  all  the  tenses,  denoting  an  act  of  an  Indefinite 
Subject  {Potential  Subjunctive^  :  as, 

hie  quaerat  quispiam  (N.  D.  ii.  53),  Aere  some  one  may  ask. 
ut  aliquis  fortasse  dixerit  (Off.  iii.  6),  as  one  may  perhaps  say. 
forsitan  haec  illi  mirentur  (Verr.  v.  56),  they  may  perchance  marvel  at 

these  things. 
tum  in  lecto  quoque  videres  susurros  (Hor.  Sat.  ii.  8),  then  on  each 

couch  you  might  hear  whisperings. 

Remark.  —  In  this  use  the  imperfect  or  pluperfect  refers  to  past  time. 

b.  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  cautious,  modest,  or  hypothetical 
statement  (especially  velim,  etc.,  in  polite  wish,  —  conjunctivus 
modestiae)  :  as, 

pace  tua  dixerim  (Mil.  38),  I  would  say  by  your  leave. 

haud  sciam  an  (De  Or.  i.  80),  I  should  incline  to  think. 

tu  velim  sic  existimes  (Fam.  xii.  6),  I  -would  like  you  to  think  so. 

vellem  adesset  M.  Antonius  (Phil.  i.  7),  /  wish  Antony  were  here. 

[Here  vellem  implies  an  unfulfilled  wish  in   present   time ;   volo, 

nolo,  are  peremptory.] 
haec  erant  fere  quae  tibi  nota  esse  vellem  (Fam.  xii.  5),  this  is  about 

what  I  want  you  to  know.     [Here  vellem  is  simply  velim  transferred 

to  past  time  on  account  of  erat  (epistolary),  by  connection  of  tenses, 

and  does  not  imply  an  impossible  wish.] 

c.  The  Indicative  of  verbs  signifying  necessity^  propriety.,  and 
the  like,  may  be  used  in  the  apodosis  of  implied  conditions,  either 
future  or  contrary  to  fact :  as, 

longum  est  [sit]  ea  dicere,  sed  .  .  .  (in  Pison.  10),  //  would  be  tedious 

to  tell,  6^^.     [So  mord'st.  Plant.  Capt.  906.] 
illud  erat  aptius,  aequum  cuique  concedere  (Fin.  iv.  i),  it  would  be 

more  fitting  to  yield  each  one  his  rights. 
ipsum  enim  exspectare  magnum  fuit  (Phil.  ii.  40),  would  it  have  been 

a  great  matter  to  wait  for  himself? 
quanto  melius  fuerat  (Off.  iii.  25),  how  much  better  it  would  have  been. 
quod  contra  decuit  ab  illo  meum  [corpus  cremari]  (Cat.  M.),  whereas 

on  the  other  hand  mine  ought  to  have  been  burnt  by  him.. 


224  Co7iditional  Sentences, 

nam  nos  decebat  domum  lugere  ubi  esset  aliquis   in  lucem  editus 

(Tusc.  i.  48),  for  it  were  fitting  to  mourn  the  house  where  a  man  has 

been  born  [but  we  do  not], 
nunc  est   bibendum  .  .  .  nunc   Saliaribus   ornare   pulvinar   deorum 

tempus  erat  dapibus  sodales  (Hor.  Od.  i.  37),  i.e.  it  would  be  time 

[if  it  were  for  us  to  do  it,  but  it  is  a  public  act]. 

Remark.  —  Notice  that,  in  this  construction,  the  imperfect 
indicative  refers  to  present  time;  the  pluperfect  to  simply  past 
time,  like  the  perfect.  Thus  oportebat  means  it  ought  to  be  [now]. 
but  is  not;  oportuerat  means  //  ought  to  have  been,  but  was  not. 

d.  The  omission  of  the  protasis  often  gives  rise  to  mixed  con- 
structions :  as, 

peream  male  si  non  optimum  erat  (Hor.  Sat.  ii.  i),  may  I  perish  if  it 
would  not  be  better.  [Here  the  protasis  and  apodosis  come  under 
308.  b.  Optimum  erat  is  itself  an  apodosis  with  the  protasis 
omitted.] 

quod  si  in  hoc  mundo  fieri  sine  deo  non  potest,  ne  in  sphaera  quidem 
eosdem  motus  Archimedes  sine  divino  ingenio  potuisset  imitari 
(Tusc.  i.  25).  [Here  the  protasis  oi potuisset  is  in  sine  divino  ingenio^ 
and  the  apodosis  of  si  potest  is  the  whole  conditional  statement 
which  follows.] 

Conditional  Particles. 

Note.  —  The  conclusion  is  sometimes  only  implied,  especially 
with  particles  of  comparison. 

312.  Tlie  particles  of  Comparison  —  iamquam,  quasi^ 
quam  si,  acsi,  utsi,  velutsi,  velnti,  and  poetic  ceu  —  intro- 
duce conditional  clauses,  of  which  the  conclusion  is 
omitted  or  implied  ;   and  take  the  subjunctive. 

Remark.  —  Contrary  to  the  English  idiom,  the  present  and 
perfect  subjunctive  are  regularly  used  with  these  particles,  except 
where  the  connection  of  tenses  requires  secondary  tenses :  as, 

tamquam  si  claudus  sim  (Plaut.  Asin.  2),  just  as  if  I  were  lame  (t.  e. 
just  as  it  would  be  if  I  should  be  lame). 

tamquam  clausa  sit  Asia  (Fam.  xii.  9),  as  if  Asia  were  closed. 

quasi  vero  non  specie  visa  judicentur  (Acad.  ii.  18),  <w  if  forsooth  visi- 
ble things  were  not  judged  by  their  appearance. 

velut  si  coram  adesset  (B.  G.  i.  32),  oj  //"  he  were  present  in  person. 

similiter  facis  ac  si  me  roges  (N.  S.  iii.  3),  you  do  exactly  as  if  you 
asked  me. 

aequo  ac  si  mea  negotia  assent  (Fam.  xiii.  43),  as  much  cu  if  it  were 
my  own  business. 
'    ceu  cetera  nusquam  bella  forent  {JEn.  ii.  438),  as  if  there  were  no 
Jighting  else7uhere. 

magis  quam  si  domi  essc8  (Att.  viL4),  more  than  if  you  were  at  home. 


Concessive  Particles.  225 

Concessive  Particles. 

313.  The  particles  of  Concession  —  although,  grant- 
ing that  —  sometimes  take  the  subjunctive,  but  under 
various  constructions  :  viz., 

a.  Quamvis  and  ut  (except  in  later  writers)  take  the  hortatory 
subjunctive  (266). 

quamvis   ipsi   infantes   sint,  tamen  .  .  .    (Or.  23),  h(nvever  incapable 

themselves  of  speaking,  yet,  &^c. 
ut  neminem  alium  .  .  .  rogasset   (Mil.  17),  even  if  he  had  asked  no 

other. 

b.  Licet  is  properly  a  verb,  and  takes  a  substantive-clause  vvitli 

the  subjunctive  (331.  c). 

licet  omnes  in  me  terrores  periculaque   inipendeant  (Rose.  Am.  ii), 
though  all  terrors  and  perils  should  menace  me. 

c.  Etsi  has  the  same  constructions  as  si  (305). 

etsi  abest  maturitas  (Fam.  vi,  18),  though  ripeness  of  age  is  wanting. 
etsi   nihil   aliud  abstulissetis  (Sull.  32),  even  if  you  had  taken  away 
nothing  else. 

d.  Cum  (concessive)  has  a  special  construction  (326). 

e.  Quamquam  takes  the  Indicative  (unless  otherwise  required 
by  the  structure  of  the  sentence)  :  as, 

omnibus — quamquam  ruit  ipse  suis  cladibus — pestem,  vastitatem, 
cruciatum,  tormenta  denuntiat  (Phil.  xiv.  3),  though  breaking  down 
tinder  his  disasters,  still  he  threatens  all  with  destruction,  plunder,  mis- 
ery, and  torture. 

f.  Quamquam  more  commonly  introduces  a  proposition  in  the 
sense  of  and  yet :  as, 

quamquam  haec  quidem  jam  tolerabilia  videbantur,  etsi,  etc.  (Mil.  28), 
and  yet  these,  in  truth,  it  seemed  might  now  be  borne,  though,  &^c. 

g.  Of  the  concessive  particles,  the  compounds  of  si  are  used 
in  all  the  forms  of  protasis  ;  quamquam  regularly  introduces  only 
conceded  facts,  and  hence  takes  the  Indicative  ;  quamvis,  quan- 
tum vis,  quamlibet,  ut,  cum,  and  licet,  take  idiomatic  construc- 
tions, corresponding  to  their  original  meaning.  Later  writers, 
however,  frequently  use  all  these  particles  like  the  compounds  of 
si,  connecting  them  with  the  Indicative  or  Subjunctive  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  condition.  Even  Cicero  occasionally  uses 
quamquam  with  the  Subjunctive  :  as, 

quamquam  ne  id  quidem  suspitionem  coitionis  habuerit  (Plane.  22), 
though  not  even  that  raised  any  suspicion  of  a  coalition. 

15 


226  Conditional  Sentences, 

Proviso. 

314.  A  Proviso,  introduced  by  modo.  dum^  dummodo, 
requires  the  Subjunctive:  as, 

valetudo  modo  bona  sit  (Brut,  id),  provided  the  health  is  good, 

modo  ne  sit  ex  pecudum  genere  (Off.  i.  y:>)y  provided  [in  pleasure]  he 

be  not  of  the  herd  of  cattle. 
oderint  dum  metuant  (Off.  i.  28),  let  them  hate,  if  only  th^  fear. 
dum  de  patris  morte  quaereretur  (Rose.  Am.  41),  let  the  inquiry  only 

be  of  a  father's  death. 

dummodo  inter  me  atque  te  murus  intersit  (Cat.  i.  5),  provided  only 
the  city  wall  is  between  us. 

Note.  —  The  Subjunctive  with  modo  is  a  hortatory  Subjunctive  ; 
with  dum  and  dummodo,  a  development  from  the  Subjunctive  in 
temporal  clauses  (compare  colloquial  "so  long  as":  see  266.  d). 

Use  of  81  and  its  Compounds. 

315.  The  use  of  some  of  the  more  common  Conditional 
Particles  may  be  stated  as  follows  :  — 

a.  Si  is  used  for  affirinative,  nisi  and  si  non  for  negative  con- 
ditions. With  nisi,  the  negative  belongs  rather  to  the  Apodosis, 
—  i.  e.  the  conclusion  is  true  except  in  the  case  supposed  ;  with 
si  non,  the  Protasis  is  negative,  —  /.  e.  the  conclusion  is  limited  to 
the  case  supposed.  (The  difference  is  often  only  one  of  emphasis.) 
Nisi  is  never  used  if  the  clause  has  a  concessive  force.  Ni  is  an 
old  form,  reappearing  in  poets  and  later  writers,  and  in  a  few  con- 
ventional phrases.    Sometimes  nisi  si,  except  if  unless.,  occurs  :  as, 

noli  putare  me  ad  quemquam  longiores  epistulas  scribere,  nisi  si  quis 
ad  me  plura  scripsit,  cui  puto  rescribi  oportere  (Fam.  xiv.  2),  don't 
suppose  that  I  7vritc  anybody  longer  letters^  except  in  case  ottt  writes 
more  to  me,  and  so  J  think  he  must  be  ansivered.  ^ 

b.  Nisi  vero  and  nisi  forte  —  sometimes  nisi  alone — regularly    \ 
introduce  an  objection  or  exception^  ironically,  and  take  the  Indica- 
tive :  as, 

nisi  forte  volumus  Epicureorum  opinionem  sequi  (De  Fato,  16),  un- 
less to  be  sure  wc  choose  tofollo7v  the  notion  of  the  Epicureans. 

c.  Sive  .  .  .  sive  (sen)  introduce  conditions  in  the  form  of  an    ^ 
alternative.     They  have  no  peculiar  construction,  but  may  be  used 
with  any  kind  of  condition,   or  with  different   kinds  in  the  two 
branches,  often  also  without  a  verb :  as, 

nam  illo  loco  libentissime  soleo  uti,  sive  quid  mecum  ipse  cogito, 
sive  quid  aut  scribo  aut  lego  (De  Leg.  ii.  \),for  I  enjoy  myself  most     i 
in  that  place,  7vhether  J  am  thinking  by  myself  or  am  either  writing  of     \ 
reading.     \Sive  .  .  .  sen  is  late  or  poetic] 


Relative  Clauses.  227 


Chapter    V.  —  Dependent  Constructions, 

l.  —  Melative  Clauses. 

The  Relative,  being  in  origin  a  weak  demonstrative  (or  possibly,  in 
some  cases,  an  interrogative),  may  be  used  alike  with  the  indicative  and 
the  subjunctive.  A  simple  relative,  merely  introducing  a  descriptive  fact, 
takes  the  Indicative,  as  any  demonstrative  would  do.  But  the  Subjunc- 
tive appears  in  many  relative  constructions,  indicating  a  closer  logical 
connection  between  the  relative  clause  and  the  main  clause.  These 
constructions  have  grown  up  from  the  future  meaning  of  the  subjunctive, 
each  with  its  own  special  development.  In  general  they  are  of  two 
kinds,  not,  however,  very  distinct  in  meaning:  viz.,  i.  clauses  where  the 
implied  logical  connection  is  that  of  Purpose  ;  2.  clauses  which  express 
more  or  less  distinctly  some  Characteristic  of  the  antecedent,  of  which 
the  most  frequent  is  the  ordinary  clause  of  Result.  3.  Besides  these, 
however,  there  are  general  relatives  of  Protasis  ;  the  indefinite  relatives 
whoever^  whenever,  &c.,  being  regarded  as  conditional  expressions,  equiv- 
alent to,  if  any  one,  if  at  any  time,  ^c^  This  leads  to  the  following  scheme 
of  dependent  relative  constructions  :  — 

1.  General  Relatives  of  Protasis. 

2.  Relative  Clauses  of  Purpose  [Final  Clauses). 

3.  Relative  Clauses  of  Characteristic,  including  — 

a.  Simple  Result  (Consecutive)  Clauses. 

b.  Clauses  of  Characteristic  (including  cause  and  hindrance). 

c.  Clauses  of  Relative  Time. 

Conditional  Kelative  Clauses. 

316.  A  clause  introduced  by  an  Indefinite  Relative  is 
treated  as  a  Conditional  clause,  and  may  take  any  of  the 
forms  of  Protasis :  as, 

quisquis  hue  venerit  vapulabit  (PI.  Am.  153),  whoever  (  =  if  any  one) 

comes  here  he  shall  be  thrashed. 
quaecumque  causa  vos  hue  attulisset,  laetarer  (De  Or.  ii.  4),  I  should 

be  glad,  whatever  cause  had  brought  you  here  [i.e.  if  any  other,  as  well 

as  the  one  which  did], 
philosophia,  cui  qui  pareat,  omne  tempus  aetatis  sine  molestia  possit 

degere  (Cat.  M.  i),  philosophy ,  which  IF  any  one  obeys,  he  will  be  able 

to  spend  his  whole  life  without  vexation. 
virtutem  qui  adeptus  erit  ubicunque  erit  gentium  a  nobis  diligetur 

(N.  D.  i.  44),  i.e.  if  any  one  shall  have  attained  virtue,  &^c. 

'  As  in  the  analogy  of  the  Greek  os  av,  orav,  &c. ;  and  in  statutes,  where  the 
phrases  if  any  person  shall,  or  whoever  shall,  are  used  indifferently. 


228  Dependent  Constructions. 

Clauses  of  Purpose- 

Note.  —  The  Subjunctive  clause  of  Purpose  has  arisen  either  from  the 
original  future  meaning  of  the  subjunctive,  or  from  its  hortatory  use. 
Grammarians  are  not  agreed  upon  the  point ;  but  it  must  have  originated 
from  one  or  the  other,  and  either  affords  a  satisfactory  analysis.  If  it 
was  developed  from  the  hortatory  subjunctive,  it  has  come  through  a  kind 
of  indirect  discourse  construction  (for  which  see  340)  :  thus  misit  legatos 
qui  dicerent  means  either  he  sent  ambassadors  who  would  say  (future  use), 
or,  he  sent  ambassadors  who  should  say ,  i.e.  let  them  say  (compare  hortatory 
subjunctive  in  past  tenses,  266.  e^  with  the  thought  and  hortatory  clauses 
in  Indirect  Discourse,  336,  339). 

As  ut  (uti)  is  of  relative  origin,  the  construction  with  ut  is  the  same 
as  that  of  relatives.  That  with  ne  is,  no  doubt,  in  origin,  a  hortatory 
subjunctive. 

317.  Final  Clauses,  or  those  expressing  Purpose, 
take  the  Subjunctive  after  relatives  (qui  =  ut  is),  or  the 
conjunction  ut  (uti),  in  order  that  (negatively  ut  ne  or 
ne,  tJiat  noty  lest) :  as, 

ab  aratro  abduxerunt  Cincinnatum,  ut  dictator  esset  (Fin.  ii.  4),  they 
brought  Cincinnatus  from  the  plough  that  he  might  be  dictator. 

scribebat  orationes  quas  alii  dicerent  (Brut.  56),  ?u  wrote  speeches  for 
other  men  to  deliver. 

huic  ne  ubi  consisteret  quidem  contra  te  locum  reliquisti  (Quinct. 
22),  you  have  left  him  no  ground  even  to  make  a  stand  against  you. 

nihil  habeo  quod  scribam,  I  have  nothing  to  write. 
habebam  quo  confugerem  (Fam.  iv.  6),  I  had  [a  retreat]  whither  I 
might  flee. 

ut  ne  sit  impune  (Mil.  12),  that  it  be  not  with  impunity. 
ne  qua  ejus  adventus  procul  significatio  fiat  (B.  G.  vi.  29),  that  no 
sign  of  his  arrival  may  be  made  at  a  distance. 

a.  Sometimes  the  relative  or  conjunction  has  a  correlative  in 
the  main  clause  :  as, 

legum  idclrco  omnes  servi  sumus,  ut  liberi  esse  possimus  (Clu.  53), 

for  this  reason  we  are  subject  to  the  laws,  that  7oe  may  be  free. 
ea  causa  .  .  .  ne,for  this  reason,  lest,  dr'c. 

b.  The  ablative  quo  (  =  iit  eo)  is  used  as  a  conjunction  in  final 
clauses,  especially  with  comparatives  :  as, 

libertate  usus  est,  quo  impunius  dicax  esset  {Qmx^cX.  2),  he  availtd 
himself  of  liberty,  that  he  might  bluster  with  more  impunity. 

Compare  quominus  (=»  ut  eo  minus),  after  verbs  of  hindering 

(see  331.0- 


Final  Clauses,  229 

c.  The  Principal  clause,  upon  which  a  final  clause  depends,  is 
often  to  be  supplied  from  the  context :  as, 

ac  ne  longum  sit  .  .  .  jussimus  (Cat.  iii.  5),  and,  not  to  be  tedious,  we 
ordered,  &>€.  [strictly,  "  not  to  be  tedious,  I  say."] 

sad  ut  ad  Dionysium  redeamus,  .  .  .  (Tusc.  v.  22),  but  to  return  to 
Dionysius,  &=€. 

satis  inconsiderati  fuit,  ne  dicam  audacis  (Phil.  xiii.  5),  it  was  the  act 
of  one  rash  enough,  not  to  say  daring. 

Remark.  —  To  this  principle  belongs  nedum  (sometimes  ne), 
still  less,  not  to  mention  that,  with  which  the  verb  itself  is  often 
omitted  :  as, 

nedum  .  .  .  salvi  esse  possimus  (Clu.  35),  much  less  couldwe  be  safe. 
nedum  isti  .  .  .  non  statim  conquisituri  sint  aliquid  sceleris  et  flagitii 

(Leg.  Ag.  ii.  '}i^),far  more  will  they  hunt  up  at  once  some  sort  of  crime 

and  scandal. 
nedum  in  mari  et  via  sit  facile  (Fam.  xvi.  8),  still  less  is  it  easy  at  sea, 

and  on  a  journey. 
quippe  secundae  res  sapientium  animos  fatigant ;  ne  illi  corruptis 

moribus  victoriae  temperarent  (Sail.  C.  ii),for prosperity  overmasters 

the  soul  even  of  the  wise  ;  much  less  did  they  with  their  corrupt  morals 

put  any  check  on  victory. 

d.  Final  clauses  easily  become  the  object  of  verbs  of  Wishing, 
Commanding,  &c.  (see  331.  a,  b). 

Remark.  —  The  clause  of  Purpose  is  sometimes  rendered  in  English 
by  that,  or  in  order  that,  with  may  or  might  (Potential) ;  but  more  fre- 
quently by  the  Infinitive  with  to  :  as, 

veni  ut  viderem,  I  came  to  see  {that  I  might  see). 

318.  The  Purpose  of  an  action  is  expressed  in  Latin 
in  various  virays  ;  but  never  (except  rarely  in  poetry)  by 
the  simple  Infinitive,  as  in  English.  The  sentence,  they 
came  to  seek  peace,  may  be  rendered  — 

(i)  venerunt  ut pacem  peterent  [final  clause  with  ut] ; 

(2)  „  qui  pacefn  peterent  [final  clause  with  Relative]  ; 

(3)  ,,  ad petendum  paceni  (rare)  [gerund  with  ad]  ; 

(4)  „  ad petendam  pacem  [gerundive  with  ad]  ; 

(5)  „  pacem  petendi  causa  ^  [gerund  with  causa]  ; 

(6)  „  pads  petendae  causa  ^  [gerundive  with  causa]  ; 

(7)  „  pacem  petituri  [future  participle  :  not  in  Cicero]  ; 

(8)  „  pacem  petitum  [former  supine] . 

^  Or  gratia. 


230  Dependeftt  Constructions. 

In  the  choice  of  these  forms  the  following  suggestions 
are  to  be  observed  :  — 

a.  The  most  general  way  of  expressing  purpose  is  by  ut 
(negatively  ne),  unless  the  purpose  is  closely  connected  with  some 
one  word,  in  which  case  the  relative  is  more  common.     Thus  — 

1.  Arria  gladium  dedit  marito  ut  se  interficeret,  Arria  gave  her  hus- 

band a  sword  to  kill  himself  [that  he  might  kill  himself). 

2.  Arria  gladium  dedit  marito  quo  se  interficeret,  Arria  gave  her  hus- 

band a  sword  to  kill  himself  WITH. 

b.  The  Gerundive  constructions  of  purpose  are  usually  limited 
to  short  concise  expressions,  where  the  literal  translation  of  the 
phrase,  though  not  the  English  idiom,  is  nevertheless  not  harsh 
or  strange. 

c.  The  Supine  is  used  to  express  purpose  only  with  verbs  of 
motion,  and  in  a  few  idiomatic  expressions. 

d.  The  Future  Participle,  used  to  express  purpose,  is  a  late 
construction  of  inferior  authority. 

Characteristic  and  Result. 

Note.  —  The  clause  of  Characteristic  is  a  development  peculiar  to 
Latin,  and  has  its  origin  in  the  potential  use  of  the  subjunctive.  A  Pro- 
tasis was,  perhaps,  originally  implied,  though  this  is  not  necessary  to  the 
analysis.  The  difference  between  the  Subjunctive  in  such  clauses  and 
the  Indicative  of  simple  description  is  that  the  subjunctive  expresses 
what  would  happen  in  a  supposed  case,  while  the  indicative  states  what 
did  in  fact  take  place.  The  most  common  and  obvious  use  of  this  con- 
struction is  to  express  a  quality  or  characteristic  of  an  indefinite  antece- 
dent (either  expressed  or  implied),  which  shows  itself  as  a  Result. 
Thus,  is  [Epicurus]  qui  ponat  summum  bonum  in  voluptate  would  mean, 
literally,  a  man  who,  would,  in  any  supposable  case,  <5r»<r.  This  serves  to 
express  a  characteristic  of  the  indefinite  person  referred  to  by  is,  mak- 
ing him  one  of  a  class  ;  while  is  qui  ponit  would  mean  the  man  (Epic- 
urus) who  in  fact  does,  ^'c.  So,  non  sum  ita  hebes  ut  ita  dicam  would 
mean,  literally,  "I  am  not  dull  in  the  manner  (degree)  in  which  I  should 
say  that."  This  quality  of  the  antecedent  readily  passes  over  into  pure 
Result,  inasmuch  as  it  is  by  a  supposed  result  that  the  quality  appears. 

319.  Consecutive  Clauses,  or  those  expressing  Re- 
sult, take  the  Subjunctive  after  relatives  or  the  conjunc-  j 
tion  ut,  so  that  (negatively,  ut  non)  :  as, 

nemo  est  tam  senex,  qui  se  annum  non  putet  posse  vivere  (Cat.  M. 
7)i  HO  one  is  so  old  as  not  to  think  he  can  live  a  year. 


r 


Consecutive  Clauses.  231 

nam  est  innocentia  affectio  talis  animi,  quae  noceat  nemini  (Tusc.  iii. 

%),for  innocence  is  such  a  quality  of  mind  as  to  do  harm  to  no  one. 
sunt  aliae  causae  quae  plane  efficiant  (Top.  15),  there  are  other  causes 

such  as  to  bring  to  pass. 

Remark.  —  Clauses  of  Result  are  often  introduced  by  such  correla- 
tive words  as  tarn,  talis,  tanttcSy  ita,  sic,  adeo. 

a.  A  negative  result  is  regularly  expressed  by  ut  non.  Some- 
times, when  the  result  implies  an  effect  intended  (not  a  simple  pur- 
pose), ut  ne  or  ne  is  used,  being  less  positive  than  ut  non  :  as, 

[librum]  ita  corrigas  ne  mihi  noceat  (Fam.  vi.  7),  correct  the  book  so 
that  it  may  not  hurt  me. 

b.  Frequently  a  clause  of  result  is  used  in  a  restrictive  sense, 
and  so  amounts  to  a  Proviso  :  as, 

hoc  est  ita  utile  ut  ne  plane  illudamur  ab  accusatoribus  (Rose.  Am. 
20),  this  is  so  far  useful  that  we  are  not  utterly  mocked  by  the  accusers 
[i.e.  only  on  this  condition]. 

c.  The  subjunctive  with  quominus  (=  ut  eo  minus)  may  be 
used,  to  express  a  result,  after  words  of  hindering  or  refusing',  as, 

nee  aetas  impedit  quominus  agri  colendi  studia  teneamus  (Cat.  M. 
17),  nor  does  age  prevent  us  from  retaining  an  interest  in  tilling 
the  ground. 

d.  A  clause  of  result  is  introduced  by  quin  after  general  nega- 
tives, where  quin  is  equivalent  to  qui  (quae,  quod)  non;  also 
after  clauses  denoting  hindrance.,  resistance^  doubt,  and  suspension, 
denying  of  effort  or  hesitation  :  as, 

non  dubito  quin,  I  d'o  not  doubt  that  [dubito  an,  I  doubt  whether\ 
aegre  (vix)  abstinui  quin  .  .  .,  I  hardly  refrained  from,  dx'c. 
nihil  impedit  quin  .  .  ,,  there  is  nothing  to  prevent,  ^'c. 
abesse  non  potest  quin  (Or.  70),  it  cannot  be  but  that. 
nihil  est  illorum  quin  [=  quod  nonj  ego  illi  dixerim  (Plaut.  Bac.  iii. 
9),  there  is  nothing  of  this  that  I  have  not  told  him. 

Note.  —  The  above  clauses  of  Result  easily  pass  into  Substan- 
tive Clauses,  for  which  see  332. 

Remark.  —  It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  constructions  of  Purpose  or 
Result  in  Latin  are  precisely  alike  in  the  affirmative,  but  that  in  the 
negative  one  takes  ne  and  the  other  ut  non.    Thus,  — 

custoditus  est  ne  effugeret,  he  was  guarded  so  that  he  might  not  escape  ; 

custoditus  est  ut  non  effugeret,  he  was  guarded  so  that  he  DID  not. 

So  nequis,  ^c,  of  purpose  ;  ut  netno,  of  result. 
The  clause  of  Result  is  sometimes  expressed  in  English  by  the  Infinitive 
with  TO  or  SO-AS-TO  or  an  equivalent  :  as, 

tarn  longe  aberam  ut  non  viderem,  /  was  too  far  azvay  to  see  [so  far 
that  I  did  not  see  ;  compare  320.  c). 


232        Dependent  Constructions:    Characteristic. 

320.  A  relative  clause  with  the  Subjunctive  is  often 
used  to  indicate  a  Characteristic  of  the  antecedent,  where 
there  is  no  idea  of  Result  (see  p.  230,  n.).  This  is  espe- 
cially common  where  the  antecedent  is  otherwise  unde- 
fined :  as, 

neque  enim  tu  is  es,  qui  qui  sis  nescias  (Fam,  v.  12),  for  you  are  not 
such  a  one,  as  not  to  know  who  you  are  {qui  sis  is  an  indirect  ques- 
tion). 

multa  dicunt  quae  vix  intelligant  (Fin.  iv.  i),  they  say  many  things  such 
as  they  hardly  understand. 

paci  quae  nihil  habitura  sit  insidiarum  semper  est  consulendum  (Off. 
i.  \\),we  must  always  aim  at  a  peace  which  shall  have  no  plots. 

unde  agger  comportari  posset,  nihil  erat  reliquum  (B.  C.  ii.  15),  there 
was  nothing  left,  from  which  an  embankment  could  be  put  together. 

a.  A  relative  clause  of  characteristic  is  used  after  general  ex-  ' 
pressions  of  existence  and  non-existence,  including  questions  imply- 
ing a  negative  :  '  as, 

erant  qui  Helvidium  miserarentur  (Ann.  xvi.  29),  there  were  some  who 

pitied  Helvidius. 
quis  est  qui  id  non  maximis  efferat  laudibus  (Lael.  7),  who  is  there 

that  does  not  extol  it  with  the  highest  praises  ? 
sunt  aliae  causae  quae  plane  efiiciant  (Top.  15),  there  are  other  causes 
which  clearly  effect,  (5r»r. 

b.  A  relative  clause  of  characteristic  (see  p.  230,  n.)  may  follow 
unus  and  solus:  as, 

nil  admirari  prope  res  est  una  solaque  quae  possit  facere  et  servare 
beatum  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  6),  to  wonder  at  nothing  is  almost  the  sole  and 
only  thing  that  can  make  and  keep  one  happy. 

c.  Comparatives  may  be  followed  by  a  clause  of  result  or  char- 
acteristic with  quam  ut,  quam  qui  (corresponding  to  the  English 
TOO  ...  to):  as, 

majores  arbores  caedebant  quam  quas  ferre  miles  posset  (Liy.  xxviii. 

5),  they  cut  larger  trees  than  xohat  a  soldier  could  carry  (too  large  for 

a  soldier  to  carry). 
Canachi  signa  rigidiora  sunt  quam  ut  imitentur  veritatem  (Brut.  18), 

the  statues  of  Canachus  are  too  stiff  to  represent  nature. 

d.  A  clause  of  characteristic  is  used  in  expressions  of  Restric- 
tion or  Proviso,  introduced  by  relatives  :  as, 

quod  sciam,  so  far  as  I  knoav. 

Catonis  orationes,  quas  quidem  invenerim  (Brut.  17),  the  speeches  of 

Cato,  at  least  such  as  I  have  disccrvered. 
servus  est  nemo,  qui  modo  tolerabili  condicione  sit  scrvitutis  (Cat.  iv. 

8),  there  is  not  a  slave,  at  least  in  any  tolerable  condition  of  slavery. 

1  These  are  sometimes  called  Relative  Clauses  with  an  Indefinite  Antecedent, 
but  are  to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  Indefinite  Relative  in  protasis. 


Clause  of  Characteristic ;  Causal.  233 

e.  A  relative  clause  (often  with  ut,  utpote,  quippe)  is  used 
when  the  quality  indicated  is  connected  with  the  action  of  the  main 
clause,  either  as  Cause  on  account  of  which  {since),  or  as  Hind- 
rance in  spite  of  which  {although;  compare  326) :  as, 

O  virum  simplicem  qui  nos  nihil  celet  (Or.  69),  oh,  guileless  man,  who 

hides  nothing  from  us  ! 
egomet  qui  sero  Graecas  litteras  attigissem  tamen  complures  Athenis 

dies  sum  commoratus  (De  Or.  18),  /  myself,  though  I  began  Greek 

literature  late, yet,  ^'c.  [lit.,  a  man  who). 
f.  Dignus,  indignus,   aptus,  idoneus,  take  a  clause  of  result 
with  a  relative  (rarely  with  ut) ;  in  the  poets  the  Infinitive  :  as, 
idoneus  qui  impetret  (Manil.  19),  fit  to  obtain, 
dignum  notari  (Hor.  Sat.  i.  3),  worthy  to  be  stigmatized. 
Note.  —  A  clause  of  Relative  Time  with  cum  is  strictly  to  be 
regarded  originally  as  a  Clause  of  Characteristic  (see  325). 

Cause  or  Reason. 

Note.  —  Causal  clauses  may  take  the  Indicative  or  Subjunc- 
tive according  to  their  construction  ;  the  idea  of  Cause  being  con- 
tained not  in  the  mood  itself,  but  in  the  form  of  the  argument,  or 
the  connecting  particles. 

321.  The  Causal  Particles  quiay  quoniam,  quando, 
quod  —  and  in  early  Latin  also  cum  {quant)  —  take  the 
Indicative :  as, 

quia  postrema  aedificata  est  (Verr.  iv.  53),  because  it  was  built  last. 
utinam  ilium  diem  videam,  cum  tibi  agam  gratias   quod  me  vivere 

coegisti  (Att.  iii.  3),  O  that  I  may  see  the  day  when  I  may  thank  you 

that  you  have  forced  me  to  live. 
quoniam  de  utilitate  jam  diximus,  de  efficiendi  ratione  dicamus  (Or- 

Part.  26),  since  we  have  now  spoken  of  [its]  advantage,  let  us  speak  of 

the  method  of  effecting  it. 
quando  ita  vis,  di  bene  vortant  (Trin.  573),  since  you  so  wish,  may  the 

gods  bless  the  undertaking. 

quom  tua  res  distrahitur,  utinam  te  redisse  salvam  videam  (id.  617), 

since  your  property  is  torn  in  pieces,  oh,  that  I  may  see  you  returned 
safely  ! 

a.  Clauses  introduced  by  these  particles,  like  any  other  depend- 
ent  clause,  take  the  Subjunctive  of  Indirect  Discourse. 

b.  A  relative  clause  of  Characteristic,  with  its  verb  in  the  sub- 
junctive, may  have  the  force  of  a  causal  sentence. 

For  this,  see  320.  e. 

c  The  particle  cum,  when  used  in  a  causal  sense,  regularly 
takes  the  Subjunctive. 
For  this,  see  326.       • 


234  Dependent  Constructions:    Temporal. 

Relations  of  Time. 

Note.  —  Temporal  clauses  are  introduced  by  particles  which 
are  almost  all  of  relative  origin  ;  and  are  construed  like  other  rela- 
tive clauses,  except  where  they  have  developed  into  special  con- 
structions. 

[For  the  Temporal  Particles,  see  page  99.] 

322.  The  particles  ubi,  ut,  cum,  quando,  either  alone  or 
compounded  with  -cumque,  are  used  as  Indefinite  Rela- 
tives, and  have  the  constructions  of  Protasis  :  as, 

cum  rosam  viderat,  tum  incipere  ver  arbitrabatur  (Verr.  v.  10),  when- 
ever he  had  seen  a  rose  he  thought  spring  had  begun  [general  con- 
dition :  compare  309]. 

cum  id  malum  esse  negas  (Tusc.  ii.  12),  when  you  [the  individual  dis- 
putant] deny  it  to  be  an  evil. 

cum  videas  eos  .  .  .  dolore  non  frangi  (id.  27),  when  you  see  that  those 
are  not  broken  by  pain,  dr'c.  [general  condition  :  compare  309.  a]. 

quod  profecto  cum  me  nulla  vis  cogeret,  facere  non  auderem  (Phil.  v. 
18),  which  I  would  surely  not  venture  to  do,  as  long  as  no  force  com- 
pelled me  [contrary  to  fact  :  compare  308]. 

id  ubi  dixisset,  hastam  in  fines  eorum  emittebat  (Liv.  i.  32),  when 
he  had  said  this,  he  [used  to]  cast  the  spear  into  their  territories  [re- 
peated action  :  see  309.  b\. 

Remark. —  The  phrases  est  cum,  fuit  cum,  &c.,  are  used  in 
general  expressions  like  est  qui,  sunt  qui  (320.  a). 

323.  Temporal  clauses  of  absolute  time  take  the  Indi- 
cative ;  those  of  relative  time,  the  Subjunctive.^ 

1  For  the  definition  of  Absolute  and  Relative  time,  see  264.  a,  284.  This 
distinction  is  not  made  in  other  languages,  but  it  may  be  made  clear  in  the  two  fol- 
lowing expressions :  i .  When  was  the  great  fire  in  London  ?  Ans.  When 
Charles  II.  was  king  {^absolute  time).  2.  When  Charles  II.  was  king  {relative 
time),  a  great  fire  broke  out  in  London.  In  the  first  case  the  reign  of  Charles  is 
referred  to  as  an  absolute  fixed  date,  known  to  the  hearer ;  while  in  the  second  the 
time  is  not  so  fixed,  but  is  given  as  relative  to  the  event  narrated  by  the  main  verb, 
which  alone  denotes  absolute  time.  In  this  construction,  the  Subjunctive  describes 
the  time  by  its  characteristics  (as  in  320),  and  thus  is  akin  to  the  subjunctive 
of  Result.  Hence  this  qualitative  character  of  the  temporal  clause  often  reappears 
and  occasions  the  subjunctive,  where  the  idea  of  relative  time  would  not  naturally 
be  expected:  as,  tum,  cum  haberet  haec  respublica  Luscinos,  &*c.  .  .  .  ettum, 
cum  ERANT  Catones,  &*c.  Here  the  former  clause  describes  the  character  of  the 
age  by  its  men  (at  a  time  when  there  were  such  men) ;  in  the  latter,  the  individual 
men  are  present  to  the  mind  (at  the  time  of  the  Catos,  &c.  —  Leg.  Agr.,  ii.  34). 


Relations  of  Time.  235 

324.  The  Particles  postquam  (posteaquam),  ubi,  ut  (ut  pri- 
mum,  ut  semel),  simul  atque  (simul  ac,  or  simul  alone),  intro- 
duce clauses  of  absolute  time,  and  take  the  Indicative  (usually  the 
narrative  tenses,  Wit  perfect  and  the  historical  present)  :  as, 

milites  postquam  victoriam  adepti  sunt,  nihil  reliqui  victis  fecere 
(Sail.  Cat.  11),  wAen  the  armies  had  won  the  victory,  they  left  nothing 
to  the  vanquished. 

Pompeius  ut  equitatum  suum  pulsum  vidit,  acie  excessit  (B.  C.  iii. 
94),  zvhen  Pompey  saw  his  cavalry  beaten,  he  left  the  army. 

a.  These  particles  also  less  commonly  take  the  imperfect,  denot- 
ing a  continued  state  of  things,  and  the  pluperfect,  denoting  the 
result  of  an  action  completed,  in  the  Indicative  :  as, 

postquam  instruct!  utrimque  stabant,  duces  in  medium  procedunt 
(Liv.  i.  23),  tvhen  they  stood  in  array  on  both  sides,  the  generals  ad- 
vance into  the  midst. 

P.  Africanus  posteaquam  bis  consul  et  censor  fuerat  (Div.  in  Caec. 
21),  zvhen  Africanus  had  been  [i.e.  had  the  dignity  of  having  been] 
twice  consul  and  censor. 

postquam  id  difficilius  visum  est,  neque  facultas  perficiendi  dabatur, 
ad  Pompeium  transierunt  (B.  C.  iii.  60),  when  this  seemed  too  hard, 
and  no  means  of  effecting  it  zuere  given,  they  passed  aver  to  Pompey. 

post  diem  quintum  quam  barbari  iterum  male  pugnaverant  (=  victi 
sunt),  legati  a  Boccho  veniunt  (Jug.  no),  the  fifth  day  after  the  bar- 
barians were  beaten  the  second  time,  envoys  come  from  Bocchus. 

Remark.  —  The  time  is  still  absolute  in  these  cases,  but  the  Imper- 
fect is  used  as  in  description ;  the  Pluperfect  to  denote  the  past  result 
of  the  action. 

b.  Rarely  these  particles  appear  to  denote  relative  time,  and  take 
the  Subjunctive  :  as, 

posteaquam  maximas  aedificasset  ornassetque  classes  (Manil.  4),  hav- 
ing built  and  equipped  mighty  fleets.  [But  the  more  approved  editions 
have  postea  cum]. 

325.  Cum  (quom),  temporal,  mezmng  when,  introduces  both 
absolute  and  relative  time,  and  takes  either  mood,  —  the  Indicative 
of  the  present  and  perfect,  the  Subjunctive  of  the  imperfect  and 
pluperfect:  as, 

cum  occiditur  Sex.  Roscius,  ibidem  fuerunt  servi  (Rose.  Am.  61), 

when  Roscius  was  slain,  the  slaves  were  on  the  spot. 
nempe  eo  [lituo]  regiones  direxit  tum  cum  urbem  condidit  (Div.  i.  17), 

he  traced  with  it  the  quarters  [of  the  sky]  at  the  time  he  founded  the 

city. 

cum  servili  bello  premeretur  (Manil.  11),  when  she  [Italy]   was  under 

the  load  of  the  Servile  war. 
cum  incendisses  cupiditatem  meam  .  .  .  tum  discedis  a  nobis  (Fam.  xv. 

21 ),  while  you  had  inflamed  my  eagerness,  yet  you  withdraw  from  us. 


236  Dependent  Constructions. 

Note.  —  The  Present  takes  the  Indicative,  because  present  time  is 
generally,  from  its  very  nature,  defined  in  the  mind  ;  and  it  is  only  when 
the  circumstances  are  described  as  causal  or  adversative  (see  below, 
326),  that  the  Subjunctive  is  used.  The  Perfect  takes  the  Indicative 
as  the  tense  of  narration,  as  with  postquam,  &c.  The  Imperfect  and 
Pluperfect  are,  from  their  nature,  fitter  to  denote  relative  time. 

a.  The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  may  denote  absolute  time,  and 
then  are  in  the  Indicative  (compare  264.  a):  as, 

res  cum  haec  scribebam  erat  in  extremum  adducta  discrimen  (Fam. 

xii.  6),  at  the  time  I  write  [epistolary]  the  affair  has  been  brought 

into  great  hazard. 
quem  quidem  cum  ex  urbe  pellebam,  hoc  providebam  animo  (Cat. 

iii.  7),  when  I  was  trying  to  force  him  [conative  imperfect]  front  the 

city,  I  looked  forward  to  this. 
fulgentes  gladios  hostium  videbant  Decii  cum  in  aciem  eorum  inrue- 

bant  (Tusc.  ii.  24),  the  Decii  saw  the  flcLshing  swords  of  the  enemy 

when  they  rushed  upon  their  line. 
tum  cum  in  Asia  res  magnas  permulti  amiserant  (Manil.  7),  a/  that 

time,  when  many  had  lost  great  fortunes  in  Asia. 

b.  When  the  clauses  are  inverted,  so  that  the  real  temporal 
clause  becomes  the  main  clause,  and  vice  versa,  the  Indicative 
must  be  used  :  as, 

dies  nondum  decem  intercesserant,  cum  ille  alter  filius  infans  necatur 
(Clu.  9),  /"^w  days  had  not  yet  passed,  when  the  other  infant  son  was 
killed. 

hoc  facere  noctu  apparabant,  cum  matres  familiae  repente  in  publi- 
cum procurrerunt  (B.  G.  vii.  26),  they  were  preparing  to  do  this  by 
night,  when  the  women  suddenly  ran  out  into  the  streets. 

c.  With  Future  tenses,  there  is  no  distinction  of  absolute  or 
relative  time  ;  and  hence  the  Indicative  is  used:  as, 

non  dubitabo  dare  operam  ut  te  videam,  cum  id  satis  commode  facere 
potero  (Fam.  xiii.  i ),  I  shall  twt  hesitate  to  take  pains  to  see  you,  when 
I  can  do  it  conveniently. 

longum  illud  tempus  cum  non  ero  (Att.  xii.  18),  Ma/  long  time  when 
I  shall  be  no  more. 

Remark.  —  In  the  other  tenses,  the  distinction  is  of  late  origin? 
hence  in  Plautus  quom  always  takes  the  Indicative,  except  where  the 
Subjunctive  is  used  for  other  reasons. 

326.  Cum  CAUSAL  or  concessive  '  {since,  while,  though^  takes 

the  subjunctive  (often  emphasized  by  ut,  utpote,  quippe,  prae- 

sertiin)  :  as, 

cum  solitude  .  .  .  insidiarum  et  metus  plena  sit  (Fin.  i.  20),  since 
solitude  is  full  of  tr  ecu  her y  and  fear. 

*  This  causal  relation  is  merely  a  variation  of  the  idea  of  time,  where  the 
attendant  drcunutances  are  regarded  as  the  cause. 


Particles  of  Time.  237 

cum  primi  ordines  .  .  .  concidissent,  lamen  acerrime  reliqui  resiste- 
bant  (B.  G.  vii.  61),  though  the  first  ranks  had  fallen^  still  the  others 
resisted  vigorously. 

nee  reprehendo  :  quippe  cum  ipse  istam  reprehensionem  non  fugerim 
(Att.  X.  3),  I  find  no  fault :   since  I  myself  did  not  escape  that  blame. 

a.  Cum  in  the  sense  of  quod,  on  the  ground  that.,  frequently 

takes  the  Indicative  :  as, 

gratulor  tibi  cum  tantum  vales  apud  Dolabellam  (Fam.  xi.  14),  / 
congratulate  you  that  you  are  so  strong  with  Dolabella. 

b.  Cum  .  .  .  tum,  signifying  both  .  .  .  and,  usually  take  the 
Indicative  ;  but  when  cum  approaches  the  sense  of  while  or  though, 
it  may  have  the  Subjunctive  :  as, 

cum  multa  non  probo,  tum  illud  in  primis  (Fin.  i.  6),  while  there  are 

many  things  I  do  not  approve,  there  is  this  in  chief. 
cum  res  tota  ficta  sit  pueriliter,  tum  ne  efficit  quidem  quod  vult  (ib.), 

while  the  whole  thing  is  childishly  got  up,  he  does  not  even  make  his 

point. 

Remark.  —  This  appears  to  be  a  colloquial  relic  of  the  old  Indicative 
construction  with  cum. 

327.  Antequam  and  priusquam  —  also,  in  late  writers,  dum 
and  donee  —  have  in  narration  the  same  construction  as  cum  :  as, 
antequam  tuas  legi  litteras  (Att.  ii.  7),  before  I  read  your  letter. 
neque  ante  dimisit  eum  quam  fidem  dedit  adulescens  (Liv.  xxxix.  10), 

she  did  not  let  the  young  man  go  till  he  pledged  his  faith. 
antequam   homines   nefarii   de   meo   adventu   audire   potuissent,  in 

Macedoniam  perrexi  (Plane.  41),  before  those  evil  men  could  learn 

of  my  coming,  I  arrived  in  Macedonia. 
nee  obstitit  falsis  donee  tempore  ac  spatio  vanescerent  (Tac.  Ann. 

ii.  82),  nor  did  he  contradict  the  falsehoods  till  they  died  out  through 

lapse  of  time. 

a.  In  reference  to  future  time,  these  particles  take  the  present 
and  future  perfect  indicative  ;  rarely  the  present  subjunctive  :  as, 

prius  quam  de  ceteris  rebus  respondeo,  de  amicitia  pauca  dicam 
(Phil.  ii.  i),  before  I  reply  to  the  rest,  I  will  say  a  little  of  friendship. 

non  defatigabor  ante  quam  illorum  ancipites  vias  percepero  (De  Or 
iii.  36),  I  shall  not  weary  till  I  have  traced  out  their  doubtfid  ways. 

b.  In  a  few  cases  the  subjunctive  of  protasis  seems  to  be  used : 

as, 

priusquam  incipias  consulto  et  ubi  consulueris  mature  facto  opus  est 
(Sail.  Cat.  i),  before  beginning  you  need  reflection,  and  after  reflecting, 
prompt  action. 

In  omnibus  negotiis  priusquam  aggrediare,  adhibenda  est  praeparatio 
diligens  (De  Off.  i.  21,  73),  In  all  undertakings  before  yoic  proceed  to 
action,  careful  i>reparation  must  be  used  (compare  §  309). 


238  Stibstantive  Clauses, 

328.  Dum,  donee,  and  quoad,  implying  purpose,  doubt,  or 
futurity,  take  the  subjunctive ;  otherwise,  except  in  later  writers, 
the  indicative.  Dum  and  dummodo,  provided,  take  the  subjunc- 
tive ;  quamdiu,  the  indicative :  as, 

dum  haec  geruntur  (B.  G.  i.  46),  while  this  was  going  on. 
donee  rediit  silentium  fuit  (Liv.  xxiii.  31),  there  was  silence  until  he 
returned. 

dum  res  maneant,  verba  fingant  (Fin.  v.  27),  so  long  as  the  facts  re- 
main, let  them  fashion  words. 

hoc  feci  dum  licuit,  intermisi  quoad  non  licuit  (Phil.  iii.  13).  /  did 
this  so  long  as  it  was  allowed,  J  discontinued  so  long  as  it  was  not. 

dummodo  sit  polita,  dum  urbana,  dum  elegans  {^xwt. '^2), provided 
it  be  polished,  refitted,  elegant. 

Remark.  —  With  all  temporal  particles,  the  Subjunctive  is 
often  found,  depending  on  other  principles  of  construction.  (See 
Intermediate  Clauses  below,  p.  251.) 

1 1.  —  Substantive  Clauses. 

329.  A  Substantive  Clause  is  one  which,  like  a  noun, 
is  the  subject  or  object  of  a  verb,  or  in  apposition  with 
a  subject  or  object. 

Note.  —  In  these  the  form  of  expression  will  depend  on  the  meaning 
of  the  dependent  words,  or  clause.  Thus,  if  the  words  can  be  put  in  an 
independent  form  as  the  words  of  some  person  making  an  assertion  in 
the  Indicative,  they  form  what  is  called  Indirect  Discourse,  and  the  clause 
is  in  the  Accusative  and  Infinitive,  as  the  Object  of  some  verb  of  sayings 
&c.  (see  272.  with  Remark).  If  they  can  be  put  in  an  independent  form 
as  a  Question,  they  require  the  Subjunctive  as  Indirect  Questions.  If 
they  can  be  put  in  an  independent  form  as  the  words  of  some  person  in 
the  Imperative,  of  can  be  conceived  as  a  Purpose  or  Result,  they  usually 
take  the  Subjunctive  with  ut,  more  rarely  the  Infinitive.  If  they  could 
be  expressed  independently  in  the  Indicative,  but  as  a  fact,  and  not  as 
the  words  of  some  other  person,  they  regularly  require  quod  with  the 
Indicative.  Many  expressions  which  in  English  take  the  form  of  an 
abstract  noun  may  be  rendered  by  a  substantive  clause  in  Latin  :  thus, 
"  he  was  accused  of  treason  against  his  country,"  will  be  acatsatus  est 
quod patriam  prodidisset.  The  common  expression  FOR  with  the  infinitive 
also  introduces  a  true  substantive  clause  :  as,  "  it  is  left  for  me  to  speak 
of  the  piratic  war,"  reliquum  est  ut  de  bello  dicam  piratico. 

When  a  substantive  clause  is  used  as  Subject,  the  verb  to  which  it  ia 
subject  is  called  Impersonal,  and  its  sign,  in  English,  is  it  ;  when  it  is 
used  as  Object,  it  generally  follows  some  verb  of  knowing,  6r*c.,  or  of 
imsAing  or  ejecting,  and  its  sign,  in  English,  is  that,  or  to  (Infinitive). 


Substantive  Clauses:  Infinitive,  239 

Substantive  Clauses  are  classified  as  follows  :  — 

!a.  Infinitive  as  Subject  (270). 
b.   Infinitive  as  Object  (271). 
c.   Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative  (272). 

2.  Subjunctive  Clauses  :    \  a.  oi  Purpose  (command,  wish,  fear). 
{ut,  ne,  quo^  quiit,  quominus).  [   b.   of  Result  (happen,  effect,  hinder). 

3.  Indicative  Clause  with  quod:  Fact,  Specification,  Feeling. 

4.  Indirect  Questions  :  Subjunctive,  introduced  by  Interrogative  Word. 

Infinitive  Clauses. 

330.  The  Accusative  with  the  Infinitive  is  used  as  the 
Subject  chiefly  of  sum,  or  of  Impersonal  Verbs  ;  and 
as  the  Object  of  the  following  :  ^ 

1.  Of  all  verbs  and  expressions  of  Knowing,  Thinking,  Telling, 
and  Perceiving  (^Indirect  Discourse). 

2.  Of  jubeo  and  veto,  and  rarely  of  other  verbs  of  Command- 
ing, Requesting,  Admonishing,  and  the  like. 

3.  Sometimes  of  verbs  of  Wishing  :  as, 

me  spero  liberatum  [esse]  metu  (Tusc.  ii.  27),  I  trust  I  have  beenfreea 

from  fear. 
dicit  montem  ab  hostibus  teneri  (B.  G.  i.  22),  he  says  that  the  height 

is  held  by  the  enemy. 
Labienum  jugum  mentis  adscendere  jubet  (id,  21),  he  orders  Labienus 

to  ascend  the  ridge  of  the  hill. 
judicem  esse  me  non  doctorem  volo  (Or.  33),  I  wish  to  be  a  judge,  not 

a  teacher. 
negat  ullos  patere  portus  (Liv.  xxviii.  43),  he  says  that  no  ports  are 

open. 
hie  accusare  non  est  situs  (Sest.  44),  he  was  not  allowed  to  accuse. 

Remark.  —  The  Infinitive  with  the  Accusative,  though  not  strictly  a 
Clause,  is  equivalent  to  one,  and  may  be  treated  as  such. 

a.  If  the  main  verb  is  changed  to  the  Passive,  either  — 

1.  The  subject  of  the  infinitive  (like  other  objects  of  active 
verbs)  becomes   nominative.,   and   the   infinitive   is   retained ;   or, 

2.  The  passive  is  used  impersonally.,  and  the  clause  retained  as 
its  subject. 

'  The  accusative  with  infinitive  is  found  with  about  80  verbs  or  verbal  phrases, 
the  most  common  being  accipio,  affirmo,  animadverto,  arbitror,  audio,  censeo, 
cogito,  cnpio,  decet,  dice,  dispnto,  doceo,  doleo,  existimo,  fama  est,  faieor,  intelligi- 
tur,  jiivat,  memini,  narro,  nego,  nolo,  oportet,  opus  est,  patior,  puto,  recordor, 
rumor  est,  sentio,  sino,  spero,  suspicor,  traditur,  verum  est^  veto,  video,  videtur, 
volo,  fas  est,  nefas  est,  jubeo. 


240  DepeiidetU  Constructions. 

b.  With  verbs  of  saying,  &c.,  the  personal  construction  of  the  pas- 
sive is  more  common  (regular  in  the  tenses  of  incomplete  action); 
with  jubeo  and  veto  it  is  always  used  :  as, 

primi  traduntur  arte  quadam  verba  vinxisse  (Or.  yt^),  they  first  are 

related  to  have  joined  words  with  a  certain  skill. 
jussus  as  renuntiari  consul  (Phil.  ii.  32),  yoit  were  under  orders  to  be 

declared  consul. 
in  lautumias  Syracusanas  deduci  imperantur  (Verr.  v.  27),  they  are 

ordered  to  be  taken  to  the  stone-pits  of  Syracuse. 
ceterae  Illyrici  legiones  secuturae  sperabantur  (Tac.  Hist.  ii.  74),  the 

rest  of  the  legions  of  Illyricum  were  expected  to  follow. 
nuntiatur  piratarum  naves  esse  in  portu  (Verr.  v.  24),  //  is  told  that 

the  ships  of  the  pirates  are  in  port. 

c.  In  the  compound  tenses  the  impersonal  construction  is  more 
common,  and  with  the  gerundive  is  regular :  as, 

traditum  est  etiam  Homerum  caecum  fuisse  (Tusc.  v.  39),  //  is  a  tra- 
dition, too,  that  Homer  was  blind. 

ubi  tyrannus  est,  ibi  non  vitiosam,  sed  dicendum  est  plane  nullam  esse 
rempublicam  (Rep.  iii.  31),  where  there  is  a  tyrant,  it  must  be  said,  not 
that  the  Commonwealth  is  evil,  but  that  it  does  not  exist  at  all. 

d.  The  poets  and  later  writers  extend  the  use  of  the  passive  to 
verbs  which  are  not  properly  verba  sentiendi,  etc. :  as, 

colligor  dominae  placuisse  (Ov.  Am.  ii.  6,  61),  it  is  gathered  [from 
this  memorial]  that  /pleased  my  mistress. 

e.  The  indirect  discourse  may  depend  on  any  word  implying 
speech  or  thought,  though  not  strictly  a  verb  of  saying,  etc. :  as, 

eos  redire  jubet :  se  in  tempore  adfuturum  esse  (Liv.  xxiv.  13),  he 
orders  them  to  return,  [promising]  that  he  will  be  at  hand  in  season. 

orantes  ut  urbibus  saltem — jam  enim  agros  deploratos  esse  —  opem 
senatus  ferret  (id.  xvi.  6),  praying  that  the  senate  would  at  least  bring 
aid  to  the  cities  — for  the  fields  fthey  said]  were  alrecuiy  given  up  as  lost. 

f.  Verbs  of  promising,  hoping,  expecting,  threatening,  swearings 
and  the  like,  regularly  take  the  construction  of  Indirect  Discourse, 
contrary  to  the  English  idiom  ;  but  sometimes  a  simple  complemen- 
tary infinitive :  as, 

minatur  sese  abire  ( Asin.  iii.  3),  he  threatens  to  go  away.    [Direct,  abeo, 

/  am  going  away.] 
ex  quibus  sperant  se  maximum  fructum  esse  captures  (Lael.  21), 

front  tvhich  they  hope  to  giin  the  utmost  advantage. 
quern  inimicissimum  futurum  esse  promitto  ac  spondee  (Mur.  41), 

7vho  /promise  and  rvarrant  will  be  the  bitterest  of  enemies. 
dolor  fortitudinem  se    debilitaturum    minatur   (Tusc.  v.   27),  pain 

threatens  to  wear  daivn  fortitude. 
pollicentur  obsides  dare  (B.  G.  iv.  21),  they  promise  to  give  hostages 

[compare  Greek  aorist  infinitive  after  similar  verbs]. 


Substantive  Clauses  of  Purpose.  241 

Clauses  of  Purpose. 

331.  The  clause  with  ut  (negative  ne),  developed  from 
PURPOSE,  is  used  as  the  object  of  all  verbs  denoting  an 
action  directed  towards  the  future}     Such  are  — 

a.  Verbs  of  commanding^  askings  admonishing,  urging,  and  in 
general  those  denoting  an  influence  upon  some  one.  These  verbs 
rarely  take  the  infinidve  (except  jubeo  and  veto,  which  take  it 
regularly)  :  as, 

his  uti  conquirerent  imperavit  (B.  G.  i.  28),  he  ordered  them  to  search. 
monet  ut  omnes  suspitiones  vitet  (id.  20),  he  warns  him  to  avoid  all 
suspicion. 

b.  Verbs  of  Wishing  and  the  like.  These  take  also  the  simple 
Infinitive :  more  commonly  when  the  subject  remains  the  same, 
less  commonly  when  it  is  different  (see  331,  above)  :  as, 

cupio  ut  impetret  (Capt.  i.  2),  I  wish  he  may  get  it. 

cum  nostri  perspici  cuperent  (B.  G.  iii.  21),  when  our  men  wished  it  to 

be  seen. 
mallem  Cerberum  metueres   (Tusc.  i.  6),  /  would  rather  you  feared 

Cerberus. 
quos  non  tarn  ulcisci  studeo  quam  sanare  (Cat.  ii.  8),  whom  I  do  not 

care  so  much  to  punish  as  to  cure. 

c.  Verbs  oi  permission,  concession.,  and  necessity  (with  or  without 
ut).     These  take  also  the  Infinitive  :  as, 

permisit  ut  partes  faceret  (De  Or.  ii.  90),  permitted  him  to  make  di- 
visions. 

vinum  importari  non  sinunt  (B.  G.  iv.  2),  they  do  not  allotu  wine  to  be 
imported. 

nullo  se  implicari  negotio  passus  est  (Lig.  3),  he  suffered  himself  to  be 
tangled  in  no  business. 

sint  enim  oportet  si  miseri  sunt  (Tusc.  i.  6),  they  must  exist  if  they  are 
wretched.     [Here  the  clause  is  subject  of  oportet.] 

Remark.  —  The  clause  with  licet  (usually  without  ut)  is  regularly 
used  to  express  a  concession  in  the  sense  of  although. 

d.  Verbs  of  determining.,  resolving.,  bargaining,  which  also  take 
the  Infinitive.  Those  of  decreeing  often  take  the  pardciple  in  dus, 
on  the  principle  of  Indirect  Discourse  :  as, 

edicto  ne  quis  injussu  pugnaret  (Liv.  v.  19),  having  commanded  that 
none  should  fight  without  orders. 

^  Such  Verbs  or  verbal  phrases  are  id  ago,  ad  id  venio,  caveo  {ne),  ceitseo, 
cogo,  concedo,  constttito,  euro,  decerno,  edico,flagito,  hortor,  impcro,impetro,  insio, 
mando,  mettio  {ne),  negotium  do,  operant  do,  oro,  perstiadeo,  peto,  postulo,  prae- 
cipio,  precor,  pronuntio,  qitaero,  rogo,  scisco,  timeo,  video,  volo,  oportet. 

16 


242  Dependent  Cofisti'tcctions. 

pacto  ut  victorem  res  sequeretur  (id.xxviii.  21),  having  bargairud  thcU 

the  property  should  belong  to  the  victor. 
Regulus  captives  reddendos  non  censuit  (Off.  i.  13),  Regulus  voted  thai 

the  captives  should  not  be  returned.     [He  said,  in  giving  his  opinion, 

captiz'i  non  reddendi  sunt.] 

e.  Verbs  of  caution  and  effort.  Those  denoting  an  effort  to 
hinder  may  also  take  quominus  or  ne  or  the  Infinitive  :  as, 

cura  et  provide  ut  nequid  ei  desit  (Att.  ii.  3),  take  care  and  see  that  he 

lacks  nothing. 

non  deterret  sapientem  mors  quominus  .  .  .  (Tusc.  i.  38),  death  does 

not  deter  the  wise  man  from,  dr'c. 
ne  facerem  impedivit  (Fat.  i.  i),  prevented  me  from  doing. 

f.  Verbs  of  Fearing  take  the  subjunctive/  with  ne  affirmative 
and  ne  non  or  ut  negative  :  as, 

ne   animum   offenderet  verebatur   (B.  G.  i.  19),  he  feared  he  should 
hurt  the  feelings,  dr'r. 

vereor  ut  tibi  possim  concedere  (De  Or.  i.  9),  I  fear  I  cannot  grant 
you. 

haud  sane  periculum  est  ne  non  mortem  optandam  putet  (Tusc.  v.  40), 
there  is  no  danger  of  not  thinking  death  desirable. 

Remark.  — The  particle  ut  is  often  omitted,  —  generally  after  verbs 
of  wishing,  necessity,  permission  ;  with  die,  fac;  and  in  indirect  discourse, 
frequently  after  verbs  of  commanding  and  the  like.     So  also  ne  after 

cave. 

g.  With  any  verbs  of  the  above  classes,  the  poets  may  use  the 
Infinitive  :  as, 

hortamur  far!  (y^n.  ii.  74),  we  exhort  [him]  to  speak, 

Clan»eR  of  Result 

332.  The  clause  with  ut  (negative  ut  non,  etc.),  devel- 
oped from  RESULT,  is  used  as  the  object  of  verbs  denot- 
ing the  accomplishment  of  an  effort? 

commeatus  ut  portari  possent  efficiebat  (B.  G.  ii.  5),  he  made  it  possi- 
ble thai  supplies  could  be  brottght.     [Lit.,  he  effected  that,  &c.] 

'  With  verbs  of  Fearing  the  subjunctive  with  ne  is  hortatory  :  timeo  ne  acctdat 
is  literally  /  fear,  Ut  it  not  happen.  With  ut  it  may  have  been  either  hortatory  or 
derived  from  Purjiosc. 

2  Verbs  and  phrases  taking  an  ut-clause  of  result  are  accedit,  accidit,  additur^ 
altera  est  res,  commiito,  consctjtior,  conitngit,  efficlo,  n<enit,  facto,  fit^  fieri  potest, 
fore,  integrum  est,  t»os  est,  tnunus  est,  tiecesse  est,  prope  est,  rectum  est,  relinqui- 
tur,  religuum  est,  restat,  tanti  est,  tantum  abest,  and  a  few  others. 


Substantive  Clauses  of  Result.  243 

a.  The  substantive  clause  becomes  the  subject  of  such  verbs 
in  the  passive  ;  and  hence  is  further  used  as  the  subject  of  verbs 
denoting  it  happens,  it  remains,  it  follows,  and  the  like  ;  and  even 
of  the  simple  esse  in  the  same  sense,  and  other  phrases  :  as, 

sequitur  ut  doceam  (N.  D.  ii.  32),  the  next  thing  is  to  show,  dfc. 
accidit  ut  asset  plena  luna  (B.  G.  iv.  29),  it  chanced  to  be  full  moon. 
accedit  ut  conturber  (Deiot.  i),  besides  this  I  am  troubled. 
reliquum  est  quarta  virtus  ut  sit  ipsa  frugalitas  (id.),  it  remains  that 

the  fourth  virtue  is  thrift. 
quando  fuit  ut  quod  licet  non  liceret  (Gael.  20),  when  was  it  that  what 

is  now  allowed  was  not  allowed  ? 

b.  A  result  clause,  with  or  without  ut,  frequently  follows  quam, 
after  a  comparative  (but  see  336.  b,  r,),  as, 

perpessus  est  omnia  potius  quam  indicaret  (Tusc.  i.  22),  he  endured 
all  rather  than  betray,  dr*c. 

c.  A  result  clause,  with  or  without  ut,  is  often  used  elliptically, 
in  exclamations,  with  or  without  -ne  (see  274)  :  as, 

quanquam  quid  loquor?  te  ut  ulla   res  frangat  (Gat.  i.  9),  yet  why 

should  I  ask  ?  that  any  thing  should  bend  you  ? 
egone  ut  te  interpellem  (Tusc.  ii.  18),  what,  I  interrupt  you  ? 

Remark.  —  The  Infinitive,  in  exclamations,  usually  refers  to  some- 
thing actually  occurring  ;  the  Subjunctive  to  something  contemplated. 

d.  The  phrase  tantum  abest,  it  is  so  far  [from  being  the  case], 
besides  a  subject-clause  {substantive)  with  ut,  regularly  takes 
another  ut-clause  (adverbial)    correlative  with  tantum:  as, 

tantum  abest  ut  nostra  miremur,  ut  usque  eo  difficiles  ac  morosi 
simus,  ut  nobis  non  satisfaciat  ipse  Demosthenes  (Or.  29),  so  far 
from  admiring  our  own  matters,  we  are  difficult  and  captioics  to  that 
degree,  that  not  Demosthenes  himself  satisfies  us.  [Here  the  first 
ut-clause  is  the  subject  of  abest ;  the  second,  a  result  clause,  after 
tantum  ;  and  the  third,  after  usque  eo  (see  332,  a.  and  319).] 

e.  The  expressions   facere   ut,  committere   ut,  often  form  a 

periphrasis  for  the  simple  verb  (compare  fore  ut  for  the  future 

infinitive)  :  as, 

invitus  feci  ut  Flaminium  e  senatu  eicerem  (Gat.  M.  12),  it  was  with 
reluctance  that  I  expelled,  ^c. 

f.  Rarely,  a  thought  or  idea  is  considered  as  a  result,  and 
takes  the  subjunctive  with  ut  instead  of  the  accusative  and  infini- 
tive.    In  this  case  a  demonstrative  usually  precedes  :  as, 

altera  est  res,  ut  .  .  .  (Off.  i.  20),  the  second  point  is  that,  ^c. 

praeclarum  illud  est,  ut  eos  .  .  .  amemus  (Tusc.  iii.  29),  this  is  a 
noble  thing,  that  we  should  love,  dr'c. 

quae  est  igitur  amentia  ut,  what  folly  is  there  then  in  demanding,  6r>c. 


244  Dependent  Co7istructions. 

g.  Expressions  which  formally  or  virtually  deny  hindering  and 
the  like  may  take  quin  (compare  319.  d).  Notice  that  the  main 
clause  is  negative  :  as, 

facere  non  possum  quin  .  .  .  (Att.  xii.  27),  I  cannot  avoid,  &^c. 

nihil  praetermisi  quin  scribam  .  .  .  (Q.  F.  iii.  3),  /  have  left  nothing 
uttdone  to  write. 

ut  nulla  re  impedirer  quin  (Att.  iv.  2),  that  I  might  be  hindered  by 
nothing  from,  dr^c. 

non  humana  ulla  neque  divina  obstant  quin  (Sail.  Ep.  Mith.  17), 
no  human  or  divine  laws  prevent^  but  thaty  &^c. 

Remark.  —  This  usage  is  found  especially  with  the  phrase  non  du- 
bito  and  similar  expressions  making  a  kind  of  Indirect  Discourse  :  as, 

non  dubitabat  quin  ei  crederemus  (Att.  vi.  2),  he  did  not  doubt  that 
we  believed  him. 

illud  cave  dubites  quin  ego  omnia  faciam  (Fam.  v.  20),  do  not  doubt 
that  I  will  do  all. 

quis  ignorat  quin  (Flacc.  27),  who  is  ignorant  that,  &'c.  ? 

neque  ambigitur  quin  Brutus  pessimo  publico  id  facturus  fuerit  si 
priorum  regum  alicui  regnum  extorsisset  (Livy,  ii.  i),  tior  is  there 
any  question  that  Brutus,  if  he  had  wrested  the  kingdom  from  any 
one  of  the  former  kings,  would  have  done  it  with  the  worst  results  to 
the  state  [direct  discourse, y^rw^/J. 

h.  Some  verbs  and  expressions  may  be  used  either  as  verbs  of 

saying  or  as  words  of  commanding,  effecting,  and  the  like,  and  may 

be  construed  accordingly :  as, 

sequitur  illico  esse  causas  immutabiles  (Fat.  12),  it  follows  directly 
that  there  are  unalterable  causes.  [The  regular  construction  with 
sequor  used  of  a  logical  sequence.] 

laudem  sapientiae  statuo  esse  maximam  (Div.  v.  13),  /  hold  that  th^ 

glory  of  wisdom  is  the  greatest. 

statuunt  ut  decem  millia  hominum  mittantur  (B.  G.  xii.  21),  they  re- 
solve that  10,000  men  shall  be  sent. 

res  ipsa  monebat  tempus  esse  (Att.  x.  8),  the  thing  itself  warned  that  it 

was  time  [monere  ut,  warn  to  do  something^ 
fac  mihi  esse  persuasum  (N.  D.  i.  27),  suppose  thai  I  am  persuaded  of 

that  [facere  ut,  accomplish  that], 

hoc  volunt  persuadere,  non  interire  animos  (B.  G.  vi.  13),  they  wish  to 
convince  that  souls  do  not  perish, 

huic  persuadet  uti  ad  hostes  transeat  (B.  G.  iii.  18),  persuades  him  to 
pass  (wer  to  the  enemy. 

Note.  —  The  infinitive,  with  a  subject,  in  this  construction  is  indirect 
discourse,  and  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  simple  infinitive  sometimes 
found  with  these  verbs  instead  of  a  subjunctive  clause. 


Substantive  Clauses:   Indirect  Questions.        245 

Indicative  with  Quod. 

333.  The  clause  in  the  Indicative  with  quod  is  used 
(more  commonly  as  Subject)  when  the  statement  is  re- 
garded as  a  fact :  as, 

alterum  est  vitium,  quod  quidam  nimis  magnum  studium  conferunt 
(Off.  i.  6),  it  is  another  fault  that  some  bestow  too  much  zeal,  ^'c. 
[Here  ut  with  the  subjunctive  could  be  used,  meaning  that  they 
should,  or  the  accusative  and  infinitive,  meaning  to  do  it  abstractly  ; 
quod  makes  it  a  fact  that  men  do,  6^r.] 

inter  inanimum  et  animal  hoc  maxime  interest,  quod  animal  agit 
aliquid  (Ac.  ii.  12),  this  is  the  chief  difference,  6^r.,  that  an  animal 
aims  at  something. 

quod  rediit  nobis  mirabile  videtur  (Off.  iii.  31),  that  he  [Regulus]  re- 
turned seems  wonderful  to  us. 

vetus  illud  Catonis  admodum  scitum  est,  qui  mirari  se  aiebat  quod 
non  rideret  haruspex  haruspicem  cum  vidisset  (de  Div,  ii.  24),  'tis 
an  old  and  shrewd  saying  of  Cato,  that  he  wondered  a  soothsayer  did 
not  laugh  when  he  looked  another  in  the  face.  [Here  rideret  is  in  the 
subjunctive  of  indirect  discourse  :  see  336.] 

a.  \n  colloquial  language,  the  clause  with  quod  appears  as  an 
accusative  of  specification,  corresponding  to  the  English  whereas 
(compare  326.  a)  :  as, 

quod  de  domo  scribis  (Fam.  xiv.  2),  as  to  what  you  write  of  the  house. 

quod  mihi  de  nostro  statu  gratularis,  minime  miramur  te  tuis  prae- 
claris  operibus  laetari  (Att.  i.  5},  as  to  your  congratulating  me  on  our 
condition,  no  wonder  you  are  pleased  with  your  own  noble  works. 

b.  Verbs  oi  feeling  ^.nd  its  expression  take  either  quod  (quia) 
(Causal),  or  the  accusative  and  infinitive  (Indirect  Discourse)  :  as, 

quod  scribis  .  .  .  gaudeo  (Q.  F.  iii.  i),  I  am  glad  that  you  write. 
quae  perfecta  esse  vehementer  laetor  (Rose.  Am.  47),  I  greatly  re- 
joice that  this  is  finished. 

facio  libenter  quod  eam  non  possum  praeterire  (Leg.  i.  24),  I  am  glad 
that  I  camtot  pass  it  by. 

Remark.  —  Rarely,  an  apparent  substantive  clause,  with  miror  and 
similar  expressions,  is  introduced  by  si  (really  a  Protasis)  :  as, 

miror  si  quemquam  amicum  habere  potuit  (Lael.  15),  I  wonder  if  he 
could  ever  have  a  friend  (originally.  If  this  is  so,  I  wonder  at  it). 

Indirect  Questions. 

Note.  —  An  Indirect  Question  is  any  sentence  or  clause,  introduced 
by  an  interrogative  word  (pronoun,  adverb,  &c.),  and  which  is  itself  the 
subject  or  object  of  a  verb,  or  which  depends  on  any  expression  imply- 
ing uncertainty  or  doubt.  In  grammatical  form,  exclamatory  sentences 
are  not  distinguished  from  interrogative,  as  in  the  third  example  given 
below. 


246  Dependent  Constructions, 

334.  An  Indirect  Question  takes  its  verb  in  the  Sub- 
junctive :  as, 

quid  ipse  sentiam  exponam  (Div.  i.  6),  I  will  explain  what  I  think 
[direct,  quid sentid\. 

id  possetne  fieri  consuluit  (id.  7),  he  consulted  whether  it  could  be  done 
\6.\r  tct,  potestne]. 

quam  sis  audax  omnes  intellegere  potuerunt  (Rose.  Am.  31),  all  could 
understand  how  bold  you  are  [direct,  quam  es  audax  !\. 

doleam  necne  doleam  nihil  interest  (Tusc.  ii.  12),  it  is  0/  no  account 
whether  I  suffer  or  not  [double  question], 

a.  The  Future  Indicative  is  represented  in  indirect  questions 

by  the  participle  in  urns  with  the  subjunctive  of  esse,  —  rarely  by 

the  simple  subjunctive  :  as, 

prospicio  qui  concursus  futuri  sint  (Div.  in  Caec),  I  foresee  what 
throngs  there  will  be  [erunt]. 

quid  sit  futurum  eras,  fuge  quaerere  (Hor.  Od.  i.  9),  forbear  to  ask 
what  xvill  be  on  the  morrozu  [erit  or  futurum  est]. 

b.  The  Dubitative  Subjunctive  (see  268  and  examples)  remains 

unchanged  except  in  tense  :  as, 

[quaeritur]  utrum  Carthago  diruatur,  an  Carthaginiensibus  reddatur 
(De  Inv.  i.  12),  [the  question  is]  shall  Carthage  be  destroyed^  or  re- 
stored to  the  Carthaginians. 

nee  quisquam  satis  certum  habet,  quid  aut  speret  aut  timeat  (Liv. 
xxii.  7 ),  nor  is  any  one  well  assured  what  he  shaH  hope  or  fear,  [Here 
the  participle  with  sit  could  not  be  used.] 

incerto  quid  peterent  aut  vitarent  (Liv.  xxviii.  36),  since  it  was  doubt- 
ful [abl.  abs.]  what  they  should  seek  or  shun. 

c.  The  subject  of  an  indirect  question  is  often,  in  colloquial 

usage  and   in   poetry,  attracted   into  the  main  clause  as  Object 

{accusative  of  anticipation')  :    as, 

nosti  Marcellum  quam  tardus  sit  (Fam.  viii.  10),  you  knaiv  hozv  slow 
Marcel  ins  is.     [Compare,  I  know  thee  who  thou  art.] 

potestne  igitur  earum  rerum  quare  futurae  sint  ulla  esse  praesensic 
(Div.  ii.  5),  can  there  be,  then,  any  foreknowledge  as  to  those  things, 
why  they  will  occur?    [A  similar  use  of  the  object-genitive.] 

Remark.  —  In  some  cases  the  Object  of  anticipation  becomes  Subject 
by  a  change  of  voice,  and  an  apparent  mixture  of  relative  and  interroga- 
tive construction  is  the  result :  as, 

quidam  saepe  in  parva  pecunia  perspiciuntur  quam  sint  levcs  (Lael. 
17),  ;■/  is  often  seen,  in  a  trifling  matter  of  money,  how  unprincipled 
some  people  are. 

quemadmodum  Pompeium  oppugnarent  a  me  indicati  sunt  (Leg.  Ag. 
i.  2),  it  has  been  shown  by  me  in  what  way  they  cUtacked  Pompey. 


Indirect  Discourse.  247 

d.  In  early  Latin  and  poetry,  questions  which  elsewhere  would 
have  the  Subjunctive  as  indirect  often  have  the  Indicative  :  as, 

non  reputat  quid  laboris  est  (Amph.  172),  he  does  not  consider  what  a 

task  it  is. 
vineam  quo  in  agro  couseri  oportet  sic  observato  (Cato  R.R.  6),  in 

what  soil  a  vineyard  should  be  set  you  imcst  observe  thus. 

Note.  —  These  cases  are  usually  considered  Direct  questions;  but 
they  occur  (as  above)  where  the  question  cannot  be  translated  as  direct 
without  distortion  of  the  meaning. 

e.  A  few  expressions  properly  interrogative  are  used  parentheti- 
cally as  indefinites^  and  do  not  take  a  subjunctive  :  such  are  nescio 
quis,  etc.,  mirum  (or  nimirum)  quam  or  quantum,  immane  quan- 
tum, etc.  :  as, 

qui  istam  nescio  quam  indolentiam  magnopere  laudant  (Tusc.  iii.  6), 

who  greatly  extol  that painless7iess  {whatez'er  it  is). 
mirum  quantum  profuit  (Liv.  ii.  i),  it  helped  marvellously. 

f.  Occasionally,  a  virtual  indirect  question  is  introduced  by  ai 
in  the  sense  of  whether  (like  if  in  English,  cf.  333.  r)  :  as, 

circumfunduntur  hostes  si  quem  aditum  reperire  possent  (B.  G.  vi.  y]), 

the  enemy  pour  round  [to  see]  if  they  cajt  find  entrance. 
visam  si  domi  est  (Heaut.  118),  I  will  go  see  if  he  is  at  home. 

III.  —  Indirect  Discourse, 

Note. — The  Indirect  Discourse  {Oratio  Obliqua),  yi'iih.  the  accusa- 
tive and  infinitive,  is  a  comparatively  late  form  of  speech,  developed  in 
the  Latin  and  Greek  only,  and  perhaps  separately  in  each  of  them.  It 
is  wholly  wanting  in  the  older  members  of  the  family,  but  some  forms 
like  it  have  grown  up  later  in  English  and  German.  Its  essential  char- 
acter is  that  the  language  of  some  other  person  than  the  writer  or 
speaker  is  compressed  into  a  kind  of  Substantive  Clause,  the  verb  of  the 
main  clause  becoming  Infinitive,  while  modifying  clauses,  as  well  as 
hortatory  forms  of  speech,  take  the  Subjunctive.  In  any  case,  the  per- 
son of  the  verb  is  necessarily  conformed  to  the  new  relation  of  persons. 
This  construction,  however,  is  not  limited  to  the  language  of  some  other 
person  ;  but  may  be  used  in  any  case  where  the  idea  may  be  conceived 
of  as  expressed  in  the  form  of  an  independent  statement,  whether  by 
another  or  by  oneself  Thus  /  see,  or  /  think  may  take  the  same  con- 
struction as  he  said,  whenever  the  object  of  seeing  or  thinking  can  be 
expressed  in  the  form  of  a  sentence  ;  since  any  thing  that  can  be  said 
can  also  be  reported  indirectly  as  well  as  directly. 

The  use  of  the  Infinitive  in  the  main  clause  undoubtedly  comes  from 
its  use  as  a  case  form  to  complete  or  modify  the  action  expressed  by  the 


248  Dependeftt  Constructiotu. 

verb  and  its  object  together.  This  object  in  time  came  to  be  regarded 
as,  and  in  fact  to  all  intents  became,  the  subject  of  the  infinitive.  A 
transition  state  is  found  in  Sanskrit,  which,  though  it  has  no  indirect 
discourse  proper,  yet  allows  an  indirect  predication  after  verbs  of  Saying 
and  the  like,  by  means  of  a  predicative  apposition,  in  such  expressions 
as,  "  The  maids  told  the  king  [that]  his  daughter  [was]  bereft  of  her 
senses." 

The  simple  form  of  indirect  statement  with  the  infinitive  was  after- 
wards amplified  by  introducing  any  dependent  or  modifying  clause* 
also ;  and  in  Latin  it  became  a  common  construction,  which  could  be 
expanded  to  any  length,  and  could  report  whole  speeches,  &c.,  which  in 
other  languages  would  have  the  direct  form.  (Compare  the  style  of  re- 
porting speeches  in  English,  where  only  the  person  or  tense  is  changed, 
as  is  also  rarely  the  case  in  Sanskrit.) 

The  use  of  the  Subjunctive  in  dependent  clauses  probably  came  from 
regarding  the  statements  contained  in  them  as  not  absolutely  true,  but 
conditioned  upon  the  trustworthiness  of  the  original  speaker,  or  gram- 
matically, as  Apodosis  with  an  implied  Protasis,  like  if  we  may  believe  the 
speaker.  So  the  French  conditional  is  often  equivalent  to  "  it  is  said  "  : 
as,  ainsi  il  aurait  a  peti  prh  doubli,  "it  is  said  to  have  nearly  doubled," 
lit.  "would  have,"  i.e.  if  we  should  believe  the  report.  So  in  German, 
Er  soil  krank  sein,  *'  he  is  said  to  be  sick." 

The  Subjunctive  standing  for  hortatory  forms  of  speech  is  simply  the 
usual  hortatory  subjunctive,  with  change  of  person  and  tense  (if  neces- 
sary), as  in  the  reporter's  style,  and  in  Sanskrit. 

335.  A  Direct  Quotation  is  one  which  gives  the  exact 
words  of  the  original  speaker  or  writer.  An  Indirect 
Quotation  is  one  which  adapts  the  original  words  to  the 
construction  of  the  sentence  in  which  they  are  quoted. 

Remark.  —  The  term  Indirect  Discourse  (oratio  obliqua)  is 
used  to  designate  all  clauses  —  even  single  clauses  in  a  sentence  of  dif- 
ferent construction  —  which  indirectly  express  the  word  or  thought  of 
any  person  other  than  the  speaker  or  writer,  or  even  his  own  under 
other  circumstances.  But  it  is  more  strictly  used  to  include  those  cases 
only  in  which  the  form  of  Indirect  Quotation  is  given  to  some  complete 
proposition  or  citation,  which  may  be  extended  to  a  narrative  or  address 
of  any  length, — as  found  in  the  Speeches  of  Caesar  and  Livy, — the 
form  being  dependent  on  some  word  of  saying,  &c.,  with  which  it  is 
introduced.  Such  words  are  dico,  respondeo,  nuntio,  aio ;  while  inquam 
always  serves  (in  pro.se)  to  introduce  a  Direct  Quotation. 

The  term  Direct  Discourse  (oratio  recta)  includes  ail  other  forms 
of  expression,  whether  narration,  question,  exclamation,  or  command. 


Indirect  Discourse.  249 

Indirect  Narrative. 

336.  In  a  Declaratory  Sentence  in  indirect  discourse, 
the  principal  verb  is  in  the  Infinitive,  and  its  subject  in 
the  Accusative.  All  subordinate  clauses  take  the  Sub- 
junctive :  as, 

esse  nonullos  quorum  auctoritas  plurimum  valeat  (B.  G.  i.  17),  there 
are  some,  whose  influence  most  prevails.  [In  direct  discourse,  sunt 
nonnulli  .  .  .  valet. \ 

nisi  jurasset,  scelus  se  facturum  [esse]  arbitrabatur  (Verr.  i.  47),  he 
thought  he  should  incur  guilt,  unless  he  should  take  the  oath  [direct; 
nisi  Juravero,  faciam\. 

Stoici  negant  quidquam  [esse]  bonum,  nisi  quod  honestum  sit  (Fin. 
ii.  21),  the  Stoics  assert  that  nothing  is  good  but  what  is  right.  [The 
verb  nego  is  used  in  preference  to  dico  with  a  negative.] 

a.  The  Subject  of  the  Infinitive  in  indirect  discourse  must 
regularly  be  expressed,  even  though  it  is  wanting  in  the  direct. 
But  it  is  omitted,  rarely,  when  it  would  be  easily  understood  :  as, 

orator  sum,  I  am  an  orator ;  [dicit]  se  esse  oratorem,  [he  says]  he  is 

an  orator. 
ignoscere  imprudentiae  dixit  (B.  G.  iv.  27),  he  said  he  pardoned  their 

rashness. 
rogavi  pervenissentne  Agrigentum  :    dixit  pervenisse  (Verr.  iv.  12), 

/  asked  whether  they  [the   curtains]  had  come  to  Agrigentum  :  he 

answered  that  they  had. 

Remark.  —  After  a  relative,  or  quam  {than),  where  the  verb  would 
be  the  same  as  that  of  the  main  clause,  it  is  usually  omitted,  and  its 
subject  is  attracted  into  the  accusative  :  as, 

te  suspicor  eisdem  rebus  quibus  meipsum  commoveri  (Cat.  M.  i), 
/  suspect  that  you  are  disturbed  by  the  same  things  as  I. 

b.  A  subordinate  clause  merely  explanatory^  and  containing 
statements  which  are  regarded  as  true  independently  of  the  quota- 
tion, takes  the  Indicative.  It  often  depends  merely  upon  the 
feeling  of  the  writer  whether  he  will  use  the  Indicative  or  Sub- 
junctive (compare  340-342)  :  as, 

quis  neget  haec  omnia  quae  videmus  deorum  potestate  administrari 
(Cat.  iii.  9),  who  can  deny  that  all  these  things  we  see  are  ruled  by  the 
power  of  the  gods  ? 

cujus  ingenio  putabat  ea  quae  gesserat  posse  celebrari  (Arch.  9), 
by  whose  genius  he  thought  that  those  deeds  which  he  had  done  could 
be  celebrated.  [Here  the  fact  expressed  by  quae  gesserat,  though 
not  explanatory,  is  felt  to  be  true  without  regard  to  the  quotation  ; 
quae  gessis set  would  mean,  what  Marius  claimed  to  have  done.] 


250  Dependent  Constructions. 

Remark.  —  Some  clauses  introduced  by  relatives  are  really  inde- 
pendent, and  take  the  accusative  and  infinitive  (see  180.  /).  Rarely 
subordinate  clauses  take  this  construction.  The  infinitive  construction 
is  regularly  continued  after  a  comparative  with  qucun:  as, 

Marcellus  requisivisse  dicitur  Archimedem  ilium,  quem  cum  audisset 
interfectum  permoleste  tulisse  (Verr.  iv.  58),  Marcellus  is  said  to 
have  sought  for  Archimedes,  and  when  he  heard  that  he  was  slain, 
to  have  been  greatly  distressed. 
unumquemque  nostrum  censent  philosophi  mundi  esse  partem,  ex 
quo  [  =  et  ex  eo]  illud  natura  consequi  (Fin.  iii.  \Qi) ,  the  philosophers 
say  that  each  one  of  us  is  a  part  of  the  universe,  from  which  this  mxt- 
urally  follows. 

quemadmodum  si  non  dedatur  obses  pro  rupto  se  foedus  habiturum, 
sic  deditam  inviolatam  ad  suos  remissurum  (Liv.  ii.  13),  [he  says] 
as  in  case  the  hostage  is  not  given  up  he  will  consider  the  treaty  as 
broken,  so  if  given  up  he  will  return  her  unharmed  to  her  friends. 

addit  se  prius  occisum  iri  ab  eo  quam  me  violatum  iri  (Att.  ii.  20),  he 
adds  that  he  himself  will  be  killed  by  him,  before  I  shall  be  injured. 

The  subjunctive  with  or  without  ut  also  occurs  with  quam 
(see  332.  b). 

Conditions. 

337.  In  a  Conditional  Sentence,  the  indicative  in  Apodosis  is  in 
any  case  represented  by  the  corresponding  tense  of  the  Infinitive. 
The  subjunctive  is  represented  by  the  Future  Participle  with 
fuisse  for  the  pluperfect,  and  the  Future  Infinitive  for  the  other 
tenses  (compare  the  use  of  the  participle  in  urus  with  fui  for  the 
pluperfect  subjunOtive) .  The  Protasis,  as  a  dependent  clause, 
is  in  all  cases  Subjunctive  :  as, 

se  non  defuturum  [esse]  pollicetur,  si  audacter  dicere  velint  (B.  C.  i. 
I ),  he  promises  not  to  fail,  if  they  will  speak  their  minds  boldly  [non 
deero  si  voletis]. 

Note.  —  The  future  infinitive,  representing  the  imperfect  subjunctive 
in  apodosis,  is  for  some  reason  very  rare,  and  only  four  or  five  examples 
occur  in  classic  authors.  On  the  contrary,  the  form  with  fuisse  is  quite 
common,  even  when  in  the  Direct  we  should  expect  the  Imperfect. 

Questions. 

338.  A  Question  coming  immediately  after  a  verb  of  asking  or 
the  like  is  treated  as  an  Indirect  Question  (see  above,  334)  ;  but 
questions  —  generally  rhetorical  —  coming  in  course  of  a  long 
indirect  discourse  are  treated  like  Declaratory  Sentences  :   as, 

num  etiam  recentium  injuriarum  memoriam  [se]  deponere  posse  (B. 
G.  i.  14),  could  he  lay  aside  the  memory  of  recent  wrongs?  [num  pos- 
sum ?  ] 

quem  signum  daturum  fugientibus  }  quem  ausurum  Alexandro  suc- 
ccdere  (Q.C.iii.  5).  who  rvill give  the  signal  on  the  retreat i  who  will 
ftqrp  to  succeed  Alexander  t 


Indirect  Discourse. 


251 


Remark.  —  Generally  real  questions,  expecting  an  answer 
(chiefly  in  the  second  person)^  take  the  subjunctive.  Questions 
asked  by  the  dubitative  subjunctive  must  retain  the  subjunctive 
(see  334.  b). 

Commands. 

339.  All  Imperative  forms  of  speech  take  the  Sub- 
junctive in  indirect  discourse:   as, 

reminisceretur  veteris  incommodi  populi   Romani  (B.  G.  13),  remem- 
ber [said  he]  the  ancient  disaster,  ^c.  [reminiscere]. 
ne  committeret  ut  (ib.),  do  not  [said  he]  bring  it  about  [noli  committere]. 
finem  orandi  facial  (id.  20),  let  him  make  an  end  of  entreaty  [fac]. 

The  following  example  may  serve  to  illustrate  some  of  the  fore- 
going principles  in  a  connected  address  :  — 


Indirect  Discourse. 
Si  pacem  populus  Romanus 
cum  Helvetiis  faceret,  in  earn  par- 
tem ituros  atque  ibi  futures  Helve- 
tiosy  ubi  eos  Caesar  constituisset 
atque  esse  voluisset :  sin  bello  per- 
sequi  perseveraret,  reminisceretur 
et  veteris  incommodi  populi  Ro- 
mani, et  pristinae  virtutis  Helveti- 
orum.  Quod  improviso  unum 
pagum  adortus  esset^  cum  ii  qui 
flumen  transissent  suis  auxilium 
ferre  non  possent,  ne  ob  eam  rem 
aut  suae  magno  opere  virtuti  tri- 
buerety  aut  ipsos  despiceret :  se  ita  a 
patribus  majoribusque  suis  didi- 
cisse,  ut  magis  virtute  quam  dolo 
contenderent,  aut  insidiis  niterentur. 
Quare  ne  committeret,  ut  is  locus 
ubi  constitissent  ex  calamitate  pop- 
uli Romani  et  internecione  exerci- 
tus  nomen  caperet,  aut  memoriam 
proderet.      B.  G.  i.  13. 


Si 


Direct  Discourse. 
pacem    populus    Romanus 


cum  Helvetiis  faciet,  in  eam  par- 
tem ibunt  atque  ibi  erunt  Helvetii, 
ubi  eos  Caesar  constituerit  atque 
esse  voluerit :  sin  bello  persequi 
per s ever a.bit,  reminiscere  [inquit]  et 
veteris  incommodi  populi  Romani, 
et  pristinae  virtutis  Helvetiorum. 
Quod  improviso  unum  pagum  ador- 
tus es,  cum  ii  qui  flumen  transierant 
suis  auxilium  ferre  non  possent,  ne 
ob  eam  rem  aut  tuae  magno  opere 
virtuti  tribueris,  aut  nos  despexeris : 
nos  ita  a  patribus  majoribusque 
nostris  didicimus,  ut  magis  virtute 
quam  dolo  contendamus,  aut  insidiis 
nitamur.  Quare  noli  committere,  ut 
hie  locus  ubi  constitimus  ex  calami- 
tate populi  Romani  et  internecione 
exercitus  nomen  capiat,  aut  memo- 
riam prodat. 


Intermediate  Clauses. 

Note.  —  Besides  the  modal  dependent  clauses  now  mentioned,  another 
construction  is  found  in  Latin,  which  has  no  English  equivalent  what- 
ever ;  namely,  that  of  a  subjunctive  clause  subordinate  to  another  which 
is  itself  subordinate.   This  is  found  when  any  infinitive  or  subjunctive  con- 


252  Dependent  Constrtictions, 

struction  —  itself  dependent  on  some  leading  verb  —  has  another  clause 
dependent  on  it.  In  this  case  the  verb  of  the  latter  is  almost  invariably 
in  the  subjunctive,  subject,  however,  to  the  following  conditions  :  i.  that 
if  the  subordinate  clause  is  inserted  for  mere  definition  or  explanation, 
BO  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  true  independently  of  the  connection  in 
which  it  stands,  its  verb  will  be  in  the  indicative  ;  2.  that  if,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  depends  on  an  infinitive  or  subjunctive  so  as  to  become  logi 
cally  a  part  of  the  same  expression,  its  verb  must  regularly  be  in  the  sub- 
junctive. It  often  depends  entirely  upon  the  feeling  of  the  writer 
whether  the  Indicative  or  Subjunctive  shall  be  used. 

340.  A  Relative  or  other  subordinate  clause  takes  the 
Subjunctive,  when  it  expresses  the  thought  of  some 
other  person  than  the  speaker  or  writer  {Informal  In- 
direct discourse),  or  when  it  is  an  integral  part  of  a 
Subjunctive  clause  or  equivalent  Infinitive^  {Attraction). 

341.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  intermediate  clauses 
to  express  the  thought  of  some  other  person  — 

a.  In  subordinate  clauses  in  Indirect  Discourse  (see  336). 

b.  When  the  clause  depends  upon  another  containing  a  wish,  a 
command,  or  a  question  expressed  indirectly,  though  not  indirect 
discourse  proper :  as, 

animal  sentit  quid  sit  quod  deceat  (Off.  i.  6),  an  animal  feels  what  it  is 
that  is  fit. 

hunc  sibi  ex  animo  scrupulum,  qui  se  dies  noctesque  stimulet  ac  pun- 
gat,  ut  evellatis  postulat  (Rose.  Am.  2),  he  begs  you  to  pluck  from  his 
heart  this  doubt  that  goads  and  stings  him  day  and  night.  [Here  the 
relative  clause  is  not  a  part  of  the  Purpose  expressed  in  evellatis, 
but  is  an  assertion  made  by  the  subject  of  postulat.] 

c.  When  the  main  clause  of  a  quotation  is  merged  in  the  verb 
of  saying,  or  some  modifier  of  it :  as, 

nisi  restituissent  statuas,  vehementer  iis  minatur  (Verr.  iii.  67),  he 
threatens  them  violently  unless  they  should  restore  the  statues.  [Here 
the  main  clause,  "  that  he  will  inflict  punishment,"  is  contained  in 
minatur.] 

prohibitio  toUcndi,  nisi  pactus  esset,  vim  adhibebat  pactioni  (id.  iv.  14), 
the  forbidding  to  take  away  unless  he  came  to  terms  gave  force  to  the 
bargain. 

d.  When  a  reason  or  an  explanatory  fact  is  introduced  by  a 
relative  or  by  quod  (rarely  quia)  :  ^  as, 


1  See  note  at  head  of  Indirect  Discourse,  p.  247.  I 

'  This  usage  probably  originates  in  Apodosis,  the  condition  being  the  supposed     | 

truth  of  the  speaker,  the  main  subject.     (See  Indirect  Discourse,  Note,  p.  248.)         '■ 


Intermediate  Clauses.  253 

Favonius  mihi  quod  defendissem  leviter  auccensuit  (Att.  iii.  i),  Favo- 
nius  gently  chided  me  for  my  defence. 

Paetus  omnes  libros  quos  pater  suus  reliquisset  mihi  donavit  (id.), 
Paetus  presented  me  all  the  books  which  [he  said]  his  father  had  left. 

Remark.  —  Under  this  head,  even  what  the  speaker  himself  thought 
under  other  circumstances  may  have  the  subjunctive.  So  also  with 
quod,  even  the  verb  of  saying  may  take  the  subjunctive.  To  this  use 
also  belong  non  quia,  non  quod,  introducing  a  reason  expressly  to  deny 
it.  Non  quo,  non  quin,  introduce  a  result  clause^  but  with  nearly  the 
same  meaning  as  non  quod  :  as, 

pugiles  ingemiscunt,  non  quod  doleant,  sed  quia  omne  corpus  inten- 
ditur  .  .  .  (Tusc.  ii.  23),  boxers  groan  not  with  pain,  but,  ^r'c. 

non  quia  philosophia  .  .  .  percipi  non  posset  (id.  i.  i),  not  that  philos- 
ophy cannot  be  acquired,  S'c. 
non  quoniam  hoc  sit  necesse  (Verr.  ii.  9),  not  that  this  is  necessary. 

342.  A  clause  depending  upon  another  subjunctive 
clause  (or  equivalent  Infinitive)  will  also  take  the  sub- 
junctive if  it  is  regarded  as  an  integral  part  of  that 
clause :  ^  as, 

non  pugnabo  quominus  utrum  veils  eligas  (Div.  C.  18),  /  will  not 

oppose  your  taking  which  you  will. 
imperat,  dum  res  adjudicetur,  hominem  ut  asservent  :  cum  judica- 

tum  sit,  ad  se  adducant  (Verr.  iv.  22),  he  orders  themy  lo/iile  the  affair 

is  under  Judgment,  to  keep  the  man  ;  when  he  is  judged,  to  bring  him 

to  him. 

etenim  quis  tarn  dissoluto  animo  est,  qui  haec  cum  vldeat,  tacere  ac 
neglegere  possit  (Rose.  Am.  1 1 ),  for  who  is  so  reckless  of  spirit,  that, 
when  he  sees  these  things,  he  can  keep  silent  and  pass  them  by  ? 

si  tibi  hoc  Siculi  dicerent,  nonne  id  dicerent  quod  cuivis  probare 
deberent  (Div.  C.  6),  if  the  Sicilians  said  this  to  you,  would  they  noi 
say  a  thing  which  they  tnust  prove  to  everybody  ? 

mos  est  Athenis  laudari  in  contione  eos  qui  slnt  in  proeliis  interfecti 
(Or.  44),  //  is  the  custom  at  Athens  for  those  to  be  publicly  eulogized  who 
have  been  slain  in  battle. 

'  The  subjunctive  in  this  use  is  either  a  Protasis  or  Apodosis,  and  partakes  of 
the  nature  of  the  clause  on  which  it  depends,  —  or  at  least  of  its  original  nature. 
In  all  cases  except  Purpose  and  Result,  this  is  clearly  seen.  In  these,  the  case  is 
undoubtedly  the  same ;  as  the  Purpose  has,  of  course,  a  future  sense,  and  the 
Result  is  a  branch  of  characteristic.     (See  Note  at  head.) 

It  is  often  difficult  to  distinguish  between  this  construction  and  the  preceding. 
Thus,  in  imperat  ut  ea  fiant  quae  opus  essent,  essent  may  stand  for  sunt^  and 
then  will  be  Indirect  Discourse  (under  356.  b) ;  or  it  may  stand  for  erunt^  and  will 
then  be  Protasis  (under  337). 


254 


Synopsis  of  Constructions. 


SYNOPSIS   OF  CONSTRUCTIONS. 


I.  Subjective 


r  I.  of  1 

'.{2.  of  5 

I3.  or( 


I.  —  Constructions  of  Cases. 
Genitive. 
Possession,  214; ' 


2.  Partitive: 


3.  Objective: 


Source  developed  into  Material,  214.  e  ; 
Quality  (with  Adjectives),  215. 
of  the  Whole,  after  words  designating  a  Part,  216. 

1.  with  Nouns  of  action  and  feeling,  217. 

•i^u   A  i-„«..-  ^    i  Relative  adjective  or  Verbal,  218. 

2.  with  Adjectives  |  ^^^  Specification  (later  use),  218.  i 


-x    with  Verbs  \  °^  Memory  and  Feeling,  219,  221. 

^'  \  of  Accusing,  &c.  (secondary  obj.),  220. 

Dative. 
As  iNm^ECT  OBJECT  (general  use,:  I  l' ^j;!;  ^raSlrWes^.k 

a.  of  Possession  (with  ^jj^?),  231. 

b.  of  Agency  (with  Gerund),  232. 

c.  of  Service  (predicate  use),  233. 

d.  of  Fitness,  &c.  (with  Adjectives),  234. 

e.  of  Reference  {dativus  commodi),  235. 

Accusative. 


Special  or 
Uses: 


Idiomatic 


I.  Primary  Object 


r  a.  Directly  affected  by  the  Action,  237. 
=  I*.  Effect  o£  the  Action  \  l^:;^l?jf^J:'±^l^: 


2.  Secondary  Object 


Idiomatic  Uses 


I.  Ablative  (from) : 


2.  Instrumental  (w/M) 


3.  Locative  (/>/,  ou,  at) 


r  a.  Pre 

'.{  b.  of 

\c.  of 


(  Cognate  Accusative,238. 
Predicate  Accusative  (of  Naming,  &c.),239.a. 
'  Asking  or  Teaching  (the  Thing),  239.  c. 
Concealing  (the  Person),  239.  d. 

a.  Adverbial,  240.  a. 

b.  of  Specification  (Greek  Accusative),  240.  c. 

c.  of  Extent  and  Duration,  240.  e. 

d.  of  Exclamation,  240.  d. 

e.  Subject  of  Infinitive  ( Indirect  Discourse),  240./. 

Ablative. 

a.  of  Separation,  Privation,  and  Want,  243. 

b.  of  Source  (participles  of  origin,  &c.),  244. 

c.  of  Cause  (gaudeo,  diapius,  &c.),  245. 

d.  of  Agent  (with  ab  after  Passives),  246. 

e.  of  Comparison  (than),  247. 

a.  of  Means  and  Instrument,  248. 

b.  of  Accompaniment  (with  cum),  248.  a. 

c.  of  Object  of  the  Deponents  utor,  &c.,  249. 

d.  of  Degree  of  Difference,  250. 

e.  of  Quality  (with  Adjectives),  251. 

f.  of  Price  and  Exchange,  252. 

g.  of  Specification,  253. 

a.  of  Place  7vtifrf  (commonly  with  In),  254. 

b.  of  Idiomatic  Expressions,  254.  a. 

c.  of  Time  and  Circumstance,  255. 

d.  Ablative  Absolute,  255. 


The  figures  refer  to  Sections  of  the  Revised  Grammar. 


Synopsis  of  Constructions. 


255 


II.  —  Syntax  of  the  Verb. 


I.  —  Moods  and  Tenses. 
*.  Indicative  :  Direct  Assertion  or  Question  ;  Absolute  Time,  264. 

Independent :   Wish,    Exhortation,  Command,   Question 
{dubitative),  265-268. 

'  Purpose  or  Result  (with  tit,  ne),  317-319. 
Characteristic  (Relative  Clause),  320. 
r  Subjunctive  :  ■{  Relative  Time  (with  r«w),  325. 

Conditions  \  ^"*f  ^  (primary  tenses),  307. 

/  Contrary  to  Fact,  308. 
Intermediate  (Indirect  Discourse),  340. 
Indirect  Questions,  334. 


b.  Dependent 
(Chap.  V.) 


J.  Imperative  : 


(.  Infinitive: 


Direct  Commands  (often  subjunctive),  269. 
Statutes,  Laws  and  Wills  (Future),  289.  d. 
Prohibitions  (early  or  poetic  use),  269.  a. 
Subject  of  esse  and  Impersonal  verbs,  270. 
Object     I  Cornplementary  Infinitive,  271. 

/  Indirect  Discourse  (with  subj. -accusative),  272. 


Idiomatic  Uses 


'  Purpose  (poetic  or  Greek  use),  273. 
Exclamation  (with  subject-accus. ),  274. 
Historical  Infinitive,  275. 


I    I.  Participles  : 


Gerund  or 
Gerundive 


3.  Supine 


2.  — Noun  and  Adjective  Forms. 

I"  Simple  Predicate,  291. 
a.  Present  and  Perfect  J  Periphrastic  Perfect  (passive). 
I  Predicate  of  Circumstance,  292. 
[  Descriptive  ( Indirect  Discourse). 

b    Future     \  Periphrastic  with  esse,  293. 

}  Periphrastic  with/«/  (=  Pluperfect  Subj.). 

!as  Descriptive  Adjective,  294. 
Periphrastic  with  esse. 
of  Purpose  with  certain  verbs. 
Genitive  as  Objective  Genitive,  298. 

Dative,  with  Adjectives  (of  Fitness),  Nouns,  Verbs,  299. 
Accusative,  with  certain  Prepositions,  300. 
Ablative,  of  Means,  Comparison,  or  with  Prepositions,  301. 
Former  Supine  (in  um)^  with  Verbs  of  Motion,  302, 
Latter  Supine  (in  u),  chiefly  with  Adjectives,  t^t^. 


a. 
b. 
c. 
d. 

{b. 


3.  —  Conditional  Sentences. 

Simple  Present  or  Past  Conditions,  nothing  implied  as  to  fulfilment ; 
Indicative,  Present  or  Past  Tenses,  306. 


2.  Future  Conditions: 

3.  Conditions  Contrary 

to  Fact : 

4.  General  Conditions 


5.  Implied  Conditions  ; 


a.  More  vivid  (probable) :  Future  Indicative,  307, 

b.  Less  vivid  (improbable) :  Present  Subjunctive. 

a.  Present :  Imperfect  Subjunctive,  308. 

b.  Past :  Pluperfect  Subjunctive,  308. 

Indefinite  :   2d  person.  Subjunctive,  309. 
Repeated  Action  :  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  with 
Indicative  in  Apodosis. 

a.  Disguised  ( jn  clause  of  Fact,  Wish,  &c.,  310. 

^  \  m  Participial  Expression,  310. 

A    rk«,:**»j       I  Potential  Subjunctive,  31 T. 

b.  Omitted      j  Subjunctive  of  Modesty,  311. 


I'- 


256  General  Rules  of  Syntax. 

General  Rules  of  Syntax. 

1.  Nouns  meaning  the  same  thing  agree  in  Case. 

2.  Adjectives  agree   with  nouns  in  Gender,  Number,  and  Case. 

3.  Possessive  adjectives  are  used  for  the  Genitive,  and  in  any 

case  may  have  a  genitive  in  agreement. 

4.  Relatives  agree   with  their  antecedent  in  Gender  and  Number ; 

their  Case  depending  on  the  construction  of  their  clause. 

5.  A  Verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  Number  and  Person. 

6.  Two  or  more  singular  subjects  —  also  collective  nouns,  with 

quisque  and  uterque  —  may  take  a  plural  verb. 

7.  The  Subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  in  the  Nominative. 

8.  A  Noun  used  to  limit  or  define  another,  and  not  meaning  the 

same  thing,  is  put  in  the  Genitive. 

9.  The  Genitive  is  used  to  denote  the  author,  owner,  source,  and 

(with  adjectives)  measure  or  quality. 

10.  Words  denoting  a  Part  are  followed  by  the  genitive  of  the 

word  denoting  the  Whole. 

1 1.  Certain  genitives  of  Quantity  —  as,  magni,  parvi,  nihili,  pluris^ 

minoris,  —  are  used  to  denote  indefinite  Value. 

12.  Many  words  of  memory  and  feehng,  knowledge  or  ignorance, 

likeness  or  nearness,  fulness  and  want  —  also  verbals,  and 
participles  used  as  adjectives  —  take  the  genitive. 

13.  Verbs  of  accusing,  condemning,  acquitting,  and  admonishing 

take  the  genitive  of  the  Charge  or  Penalty. 

14.  The  Dative  is  the  case  of  the  Indirect  Object. 

15.  Words  of  likeness,   fitness,  nearness,  service,  and  help,  are 

followed  by  the  dative. 

16.  Verbs   meaning  to  favor,  help,  please,  trust,  and  their  con- 

traries ;   also  to  believe,  persuade,  command,  obey,  serve, 
resist,  envy,  threaten,  pardon,  and  spare,  take  the  dative. 

17.  The  dative  is  used  with  esse  to  denote  the  Owner  ;  also  with 

the  participle  in  dua  to  denote  the  Agent. 

18.  Most  verbs  compounded  with  ad,  ante,  con,  /«,  inters  obypost^ 

prae,  pro,  sub,  super,  take  the  dative. 

19.  Verbs  of  giving,  telling,  sending,  and  the  like  —  sometimes  of 

comparmg  and  taking  away  —  take  the  accusative  and  dative, 

20.  The  dative  is  used  to  denote  the  Purpose  or  End ;  often  with 

another  dative  of  the  person  or  thing  affected. 

21.  The  Accusative  is  the  case  of  the  Direct  Object. 

22.  The  Subject  of  the  Infinitive  mood  is  in  the  accusative. 

23.  Duration  of  time  and  extent  of  space  are  in  the  accusative. 

24.  The  accusative  is  used  adverbially,  or  for  specification. 

25.  Verbs  of  asking  and  teaching  take  two  accusatives,  one  of  a 

person,  and  the  other  of  a  thinj^. 


G enteral  Rules  of  Syntax.  257 

26.  The  Ablative  is  used  of  cause,  manner,  means,  instrument, 

quality,  specification,  and  price. 

27.  The  Voluntary  Agent  after  a  passive  verb  is  in  the  ablative 

with  ab. 

28.  Words  denoting  separation,  and  plenty  or  want,  —  also  opus 

and  usus,  signifying  need,  —  govern  the  ablative. 

29.  Participles  denoting  birth  or  origin  take  the  ablative. 

30.  The  adjectives  dignus,  indignus,  with    many  verbals,  as  con- 

tentus,  laettis,  praeditus,  take  the  ablative. 

31.  The  deponents  utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  vescor,  and  their 

compounds,  take  the  ablative. 

32.  The  comparative  degree  may  be  followed  by  the  ablative. 

33.  Degree  of  difference  is  put  in  the  ablative. 

34.  Time  at  or  within  which  is  put  in  the  ablative. 

35.  A  subject  and  predicate  in  the  ablative  are  used  to  define  the 

time  or  circumstances  of  an  action  {Ablative  Absolute). 

36.  The  name  of  the  Town  where  is  in  form  Hke  the  genitive  of 

singular  names  in  «j-,  a,  um,  otherwise  dative  or  ablative ;  of 
that  WHITHER  in  the  accusative,  and  whence  in  the  ablative. 
So  of  domus  riis  (also,  htimi,  belli,  militiae),  and  many  names  of  Islands. 

37.  With  Other  words  (including  names  of  countries)  Prepositions 

must  be  used  to  denote  where,  whither,  or  whence. 

38.  The  Infinitive  is  used  like  a  neuter  noun,  as  the  Subject  or 

Object,  or  to  complete  the  action  of  a  verb. 

39.  The  Infinitive   is  used,  with  subject-accusative,  with  expres- 

sions of  knowing,  thinking,  telling,  and  perceiving. 

40.  The  Infinitive  is  often  used  for  the  tenses  of  the  indicative 

in  narration  {Historical  Infinitive). 

41.  The  Gerund,  governing  the  case  of  its  verb,  or  the  Gerund- 

ive in  agreement  with  a  noun,  is  construed  as  a  verbal  noun. 

42.  The  Supine  in  um  is  used  after  verbs  of  motion,  to  express 

the  purpose  of  the  motion  ;  the  Supine  in  u  with  adjectives. 

43.  The  Subjunctive  is   used  independently  to   denote  a  wish, 

command,  or  concession,  also  in  questions  of  doubt. 

44.  Relatives  or  Conjunctions  implying  purpose  or  result  —  also  of 

characteristic  and  of  relative  time  —  require  the  Subjunctive. 

45.  Indirect  Questions  take  a  verb  in  the  Subjunctive. 

46.  The  Subjunctive  present  and  perfect  are  used  in  future  condi- 

tions ;  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect,  in  those  contrary  to  fact. 

47.  Dependent  Clauses  in    Indirect  Discourse,  or  in  a  subjunc- 

tive construction,  take  the  Subjunctive. 

48.  In  the  sequence  of  Tenses,  primary  tenses  are  followed  in  the 

Subjunctive  by  primary,  and  secondary  by  secondary. 
For  the  government  of  Prepositions,  see  page  loi. 
For  the  constructions  of  Cases,  see  pages  145-183. 


258  Arrangement. 


Chapter  VI. —  Arrangement » 

Note.  —  While  in  Latin  the  words  do  not  follow  the  order  ot 
construction,  yet  they  have  a  regular  arrangement ;  which,  however, 
is  constantly  modified  for  emphasis,  harmony,  and  clearness. 

Normal  Order. 

343.  Regularly  the  subject  stands  ^rj^f,  followed  by  its 
modifiers  ;  the  verb  last,  preceded  by  the  words  which 
depend  upon  it :  as, 

civis  Romanus  sum  [not  sum  Romanus  civis). 

voluptates  blandissimae  dominae  majores  partes  animi  a  virtute  de- 
torquent  (Off.  ii.  10). 

Remark.  —  This  is  the  order  usually  to  be  followed  where  no  empha- 
sis is  thrown  on  any  particular  word,  as  in  simple  narration  of  fact :  as, 

Hannibal,  imperator  factus,  |  proximo  triennio  omnes  gentes  Hispa- 
niae  |  bello  subegit  (Nep.  Hann.  3). 

a.  A  predicate  nominative,  as  the  most  important  part  of  the 
predicate,  is  often  placed  after  the  copula :  as, 

qui  Athenis  est  mortuus  (id.  24). 

haec  ad  judicandum  sunt  facillima  (id.  iii.  6). 

b.  The  forms  of  sum  meaning  there  is^  6-»r.,  often  come  first  in 
the  sentence:  as, 

sunt  quaedam  ofiicia  quae  aliis  magis  quam  aliis  debeantur  (id.  i.  18). 

c.  A  numeral  adjective,  or  one  essential  to  the  meaning  of  the 
phrase,  goes  before  its  noun  ;  one  simply  descriptive  commonly 
follows :  as, 

omnes  homines  decet. 

est  vlri  magni  rebus  agitatis  punirc  sontes  (Off.  i.  24). 

omnis  actio  vacare  debet  temeritate  et  neglegentia  (id.  29). 

cum  aliqua  perturbatione  (id.  i.  38). 

Laelius  et  sapiens  ct  amtcitiae  gloria  excellens  (Lael.  i). 

d.  A  Demonstrative  pronoun  precedes  the  noun,  Relatives 
or  Interrogativcs  stand  first  in  their  sentence  or  clause,  Adverbs 
stand  directly  before  the  word  they  qualify. 


Emphasis,  259 

Emphasis. 

Note.  —  Though  the  order  of  words  in  a  Latin  sentence  often  seems 
quite  arbitrary,  yet  it  will  be  observed  that  almost  every  arrangement 
preduces  some  effect,  such  as  must  usually  be  given  in  English  by  em- 
phasis, or  stress  of  voice.  In  actual  practice,  what  may  be  called  the 
normal  order  is  rarely  found.  It  is  continually  altered,  either  for  the 
sake  of  Emphasis,  —  to  throw  stress  on  the  more  important  words  ;  or  for 
the  sake  of  Euphony,  —  to  make  the  sentence  more  agreeable  to  the  ear. 

344.  The  normal  order  of  words  may  be  changed  or 
reversed  for  the  sake  of  emphasis. 

a.  Particularly,  the  verb  comes  first,  and  the  subject  last.  This 
makes  either  or  both  emphatic  :  as, 

dicebat  idem  C.  Curio  (Off.  ii.  17). 

b.  Any  word  closely  connected  with  the  preceding  sentence 
comes  first,  and  with  the  following  last :  as, 

ac  duabus  iis  personis  quas  supra  dixi  tertia  adjungitur  (Off.  i.  32). 
objecit  [Cato]  ut  probrum  M.  Nobiliori  quod  is  in  provinciam  poetas 

duxisset ;  duxerat  autem  consul  ille  in  ^Etoliam  ut  scimus  Ennium 

(Tusc.  i.  2). 
maxime  perturbantur  officia  in  amicitiis  ;  quibus  et  non  tribuere  quod 

recte  possis,  et  tribuere  quod  non  sit  aequum,  contra  officium  est 

(Off.  iii.  10). 

c.  A  word  or  phrase  inserted  between  the  parts  of  compound 
tenses  becomes  emphatic  :  as, 

ille  reprehensus  a  multis  est  (N.  D.  ii.  38). 

d.  A  modifier  of  a  noun  and  adjective  or  participle  is  often 
placed  between  them.     So  in  the  gerundive  construction  :  as, 

de  communi  hominum  memoria  (Tusc.  i.  24). 

de  uno  imperatore  contra  praedones  constituendo  (Manil.  17). 

e.  Sometimes  a  noun  and  its  attribute  are  separated  as  far  as 
possible,  so  as  to  include  less  important  words  :  as, 

objurgationes  etiam  nonnunquam  incidunt  necessariae  (Off.  i.  38). 

f.  One  pair  of  ideas  is  set  off  against  another,  either  in  the 
same  order  {anaphora)^  or  in  exactly  the  opposite  order  {chiasmus). 
The  latter,  which  is  very  common,  has  its  name  from  the  Greek  X, 
on  account  of  the  cross  arrangement.     Thus, 

rerum  copia  verborum  copiam  gignit  (De  Or.  iii.  3,  31). 

pro  vita  hominis  nisi  hominis  vita  reddatur  (B.  G.  vi.  16). 

leges  supplicio  improbos  afficiunt,  defendunt  ac  tuentur  bonos  (Fin. 

»i-  5)- 
non  igitur  utilitatem  amicitia,  sed  utilitas  amicitiam  consecuta  est 

(Lael.  14).     Here  the  arrangement  of  cases  only  is  chiastic,  that  of 

ideas  is  regular.] 


26o  Arrangement. 

g.  Different  forms  of  the  same  word  are  often  placed  together, 
also  words  from  the  same  root. 

h,  A  favorite  order  with  the  poets  is  the  interlocked,  by  which 
the  attribute  of  one  pair  comes  between  the  parts  of  the  other. 
This  is  often  joined  with  chiasmus  :  as, 

et  superjecto  pavidae  natarunt  aequore  damae  (Hor.  Od.  i.  2,  11). 

arma  nondum  expiatis  uncta  cruoribus  (id.  ii.  i,  5). 

/.  Almost  universally  the  main  word  of  the  sentence  is  put 
first  (rarely  last).  This  may  be  simply  the  emphatic  word,  con- 
taining the  idea  most  prominent  in  the  writer's  mind  {efnphasis)  ; 
or  it  may  be  contrasted  with  some  other  word  preceding  or  follow- 
ing {antithesis). 

Special  Rules. 

345.  The  following  are  special  rules  of  arrange- 
ment :  — 

a.  Prepositions  regularly  precede  their  nouns  (except  tonus 
and  versus) ;  but  a  monosyllabic  preposition  is  often  placed 
between  a  noun  and  adjective  :  as, 

quern  ad  modum  ;  quam  ob  rem ;  magno  cum  metu  ;  omnibus  cum 
copiis  ;  nulla  in  re. 

b.  Itaque  regularly  comes  first  in  its  sentence  or  clause  ;  enim, 
autem,  vero,  quoque,  never  first,  but  usually  second,  sometimes 
third  if  the  second  word  is  emphatic  ;  quidem  never  first,  but  after 
the  emphatic  word ;  ne  -  .  .  quidem  include  the  emphatic  word 
or  words. 

c.  Inquam,  inquit,  credo,  opinor,  quaeso,  used  parenthetically, 
always  follow  one  or  more  words. 

d.  The  negative  precedes  the  word  it  especially  affects  ;  but  if 
it  belongs  to  no  one  word,  it  begins  the  sentence. 

<?.  In  the  arrangement  of  clauses,  the  Relative  clause  more  often 
comes  first  in  Latin,  and  usually  contains  the  antecedent  noun  :  as, 

quos  amisimus  cives  eos  Martes  vis  perculit  ("  those  citizens,  whom 
<5r»r."  :  Cic.  Marc.  6). 

f.  Any  clause,  principal  or  subordinate,  is  suspended,  when  any 
subordinate  connective  appears  between  the  first  and  last  word  of 
that  clause ;  and  the  rest  of  the  clause  does  not  appear  till  the 
whole  of  the  subordinate  one  is  finished.    Thus,  — 

Atquk  ego,  ut  vidi  quos  maximo  furore  et  scelere  esse  inflammatos 
gclebam,  eos  vobiscum  esse  et  Romae  remansisse,  in  eo  omnes  dies 
noctesque  consumpsi,  ut  quid  agerent,  quid  molirentur,  sentirem  ac 
vidtrem,  —  Cic.  Cat.  iii.  2. 


Structure  of  the  Period.  261 

Here  the  leading  clause  Atque  ego  is  suspended  by  the  relative 
clause  ut  vidi,  which  again  is  interrupted  by  the  words  quos  .  . 
sciebain.  The  latter  clause  being  now  complete,  the  object  oi  vidt 
is  seen  to  be  the  infinitive  clause  eos  .  .  remansisse,  the  antecedent 
coming  after  the  relative.  The  main  clause  is  now  resumed,  its 
verb  being  evidently  consumpsi,  which  is  the  predicate  of  ego. 
This,  again,  is  followed  hy  ut  .  .  viderem  in  apposition  with  eo^ 
this  clause  being  itself  suspended  by  the  indirect  questions  quid  .  . 
tnolirentur. 

Structure. 

Note.  —  Latin  expresses  the  relation  of  words  to  each  other  by  in- 
flection rather  than  by  position,  like  modern  languages.  Hence  its  struc- 
ture not  only  admits  of  great  variety  in  the  arrangement  of  words,  but 
is  especially  favorable  to  that  form  of  sentence  which  is  called  a  Period. 
In  a  period,  the  sense  is  expressed  by  the  sentence  as  a  whole,  and  is 
held  in  suspense  till  the  delivery  of  the  last  word,  which  usually  ex- 
presses the  main  action  or  motive. 

An  English  sentence  does  not  often  admit  this  form  of  structure.  It 
was  imitated,  sometimes  with  great  skill  and  beauty,  by  many  of  the 
early  writers  of  English  prose  ;  but  its  effect  is  better  seen  in  poetry,  in 
such  a  passage  as  the  following  :  — 

*'  High  on  a  throne  of  royal  state,  which  far 
Outshone  the  wealth  of  Ormus  and  of  Ind, 
Or  where  the  gorgeous  East  with  richest  hand 
Showers  on  her  kings  barbaric  pearl  and  gold, 
Satan  exalted  sat. ' ' 

Paradise  Lost,  Book  II.  1-5. 

But  in  argument  or  narrative,  the  best  English  writers  more  commonly 
give  short  clear  sentences,  each  distinct  from  the  rest,  and  saying  one 
thing  by  itself.  In  Latin,  on  the  contrary,  the  story  or  argument  is 
viewed  as  a  whole  ;  and  a  logical  relation  among  all  its  parts  is  carefully 
indicated,  forming  one  compact  group.     Hence  — 

346.  In  the  structure  of  the  Period,  the  following  rules 
are  to  be  observed  :  — 

a.  In  general  the  main  subject  or  object  is  put  in  the  main 
clause,  not  in  the  subordinate  ones  :  as, 

Hannibal  cum  recensuisset  auxilia  Gades  profectus  est,  when  Hannibal 
had  reviewed,  ^c. 

Volsci  exiguam  spem  in  armis,  alia  undique  abscissa,  cum  tentassent, 
praeter  cetera  adversa,  loco  quoque  iniquo  ad  pugnam  eongressi,  ini- 
quiore  ad  fugam,  cum  ab  omni  parte  caederentur,  ad  preces  a  certamine 


262  Arrangement, 

versi,  dedito  imperatore  traditisque  armis,  sub  jugum  missi,  cum  singulis 
vestimentis,  ignominiae  cladisque  pleni  diniittuntur  (Liv.  iv.  10).  [Here 
the  main  fact  is  the  return  of  the  Volscians,  which  is  given  in  the  first  and 
last  words  of  the  period  ;  the  circumstances  of  the  surrender,  &c.,  which 
in  English  would  be  detailed  in  a  number  of  brief  independent  sentences, 
are  put  in  the  several  subordinate  clauses.] 

b.  Clauses  are  usually  arranged  in  the  natural  order  of  time  or 
logical  sequence,  —  cause  before  result ;  purpose,  manner,  and  the 
like  before  the  act. 

There  are,  however,  many  exceptions,  from  the  tendency  to  put 
the  more  important  first,  or  else  last. 

c.  In  co-ordinate  clauses,  the  copulative  conjunctions  are  fre- 
quently omitted  {asyndeton)^  the  connection  being  made  clear  by 
the  position  of  words  and  by  antithesis. 

d.  A  change  o""  subject,  where  required,  is  marked  by  the  intro- 
duction of  a  Pronoun,  if  the  new  subject  has  already  been  men- 
tioned in  the  preceding  sentence.  But  the  change  of  subject  may 
often  be  avoided  by  the  change  of  structure,  —  the  less  important 
being  me-ged  in  the  greater  by  aid  of  participles  or  subordinate 
phrases :  as, 

dolorem  si  non  poteio  frangere  occultabo,  if  I  cannot  conquer  the  pain, 

I  will  hide  IT. 
quem  ut  barbari  incendium  effugisse  viderunt,  telis  eminus  emissis 

interfecerunt,  when  the  barbarians  saw  that  he  had  escaped,  they  threw 

darts  at  HIM,  and  killed  HIM. 
celeriter  confecto  negotio,  in  hiberna  legiones  r»ve*-terunt,  ths  matUr 

was  soon  finis hed^  and  the  legions,  ^c. 


PART     THIRD. 


RULES   OF   VERSE   (PROSODY). 


Chapter  I.  —  Quantity. 


Note. — The  earliest  poetry  of  the  Indo-European  people  seems  to 
have  been  originally  an  accented  poetry,  somewhat  like  our  own,  with- 
out regard  to  the  natural  quantity  of  the  syllables.  But  the  Greeks  de- 
veloped a  form  of  poetry  which,  like  music,  regarded  very  carefully  the 
natural  quantities  of  syllables ;  and  the  Romans  borrowed  their  forms  in 
classical  times  from  them.  Hence  Latin  poetry  does  not  depend,  like 
ours,  upon  accent  and  rhyme  ;  but  is  measured,  like  musical  strains,  by 
the  length  of  syllables.  Especially  does  it  differ  from  ours  in  not  regard- 
ing the  accent  of  the  word,  but  substituting  for  that  an  entirely  different 
system  of  metrical  accent  or  ictus  (see  358),  which  depended  upon  the 
character  of  the  measure  used,  falling  regularly  on  the  long  syllables. 
Each  syllable  is  considered  as  either  long  or  short, — in  Quantity  or 
length  (not  in  Quality  or  sound,  as  we  speak  of  the  long  or  short  vowel- 
sounds  in  English)  ;  a  long  syllable  being  generally  reckoned  in  length 
equal  to  two  short  ones  (for  exceptions  see  355.  c,d). 

The  quantity  of  radical  or  stem-syllables  —  as  of  short  a  in  pater  or 
of  long  a  in  mater  —  can  be  learned  only  by  observation  or  practice, 
unless  determined  by  the  general  rules  of  Quantity.  Most  of  the  rules 
of  Prosody  are  only  arbitrary  rules  for  the  purpose  of  memory ;  the 
syllables  being  long  or  short  because  the  ancients  pronounced  them  so.  In 
those  cases  which  cannot  be  conveniently  grouped,  the  quantity  is  shown 
by  the  actual  practice  of  the  ancients,  and  is  said  to  be  determined  by 
the  authority  of  Poets,  —  the  principal  means  we  have  of  learning  it.  In 
some  inscriptions,  however,  the  long  vowels  are  distinguished  in  various 
ways,  —  by  marks  over  the  letters,  or  by  doubling. 

Owing  to  the  practice  of  Roman  poets  of  borrowing  very  largely  from 
the  poetry  and  mythology  of  the  Greeks,  numerous  Greek  words,  es- 
pecially proper  names,  make  an  important  part  of  Latin  poetry.  These 
words  are  generally  employed  in  accordance  with  the  Greek,  and  not  the 
Latin,  laws  of  quantity.  Where  these  vary  in  any  important  point,  they 
will  be  noticed  in  the  rules  given  below. 


264  Prosody. 

1.  —  Creneral  Rules. 

347.  The  following  are  General  Rules  of  Quantity 
(compare  18):  — 

a.  Vowel.  A  vowel  before  another  vowel  or  h  is  Short :  as, 
via,  trSliG.     But  — 

1 .  In  the  genitive  form  ius,  i  is  long.  It  is,  however,  sometimes 
made  short  in  verse  ;  and  in  alterius  is  commonly  short. 

2.  In  the  fifth  declension  (genitive  and  dative  singular),  e  is 
long  between  two  vowels  :  as,  diei;  but  is  short  in  fidH^  rH^  spH. 

3.  In  fio,  i  is  long,  except  when  followed  by  er  :  3.s, /lo,  fiebam^ 
fiam^  fieri,  fUrem . 

4.  In  the  terminations  aius  and  eius,  a  and  e  are  long:  as  in 
Gains,  Pompeius  j  in  some  forms  oiaio,  and  in  genitives  in  ai. 

5.  In  many  Greek  proper  names,  the  vowel  in  Latin  represents 
a  long  vowel  or  diphthong,  and  is  consequently  long:  as,  Tro^s, 
Thdlta,  herods.  But  many  Greek  words  are  more  or  less  Latinized 
in  this  respect :  as,  Acadejnta,  chorla. 

6.  In  eheu  and  dhis  (for  divus),  and  sometimes  in  Diana  and 
ohe,  the  first  syllable  is  long. 

b.  Diphthong.  A  Diphthong  is  Long :  as,  foedus,  cm,  cae- 
lum, deinde  (u  with  q  does  not  count  as  a  vowel). 

But  the  preposition  prae  in  compounds  is  generally  short  before 
a  vowel  (as  m  prde-ustis,  Mn.  vii.  524;  prde-eunte,  v.  186). 

c.  Contraction.  A  vowel  formed  by  contraction  (Crasis)  is 
Long:  as  i  in  nil  (for  nthtl)  ;  currus  (genitive,  for  currUts).  But 
often  two  syllables  are  united  by  Synaeresis,  as  in  parigtibus  {par- 
yetibus),  without  contraction  {Syuezesis). 

d.  Position.  A  syllable  in  which  a  short  vowel  comes  before 
two  consonants  or  a  double  consonant  —  also  before  the  letter  j  — 
is  long  :  as,  mdgnus,  dux,  pejor,  it  ventis,  gaza  (but  ddhuc). 

But  if  the  two  consonants  are  a  mute  followed  by  I  or  r,  the 
vsyllable  is  Common,  —  that  is,  it  may  be  either  long  or  short  in 
verse  :  as  in  allcrls,  pltribus,  rSfluo.' 

Rkmark.  —  The  y  or  v  resulting  from  synaeresis  has  the  effect  of  a 
consonant  :  as,  dbietis,  fluviorttm  {flUvius).  And  conversely,  when  the 
semivowel  is  vocalized,  quantity  is  lost :  as  in  sfluae  —  sUvae  (Hor.). 

'  This  usage  is  more  or  less  arbitrary,  and  varies  with  different  words :  thus 
(in  Virgil)  the  a  in  /n/Wj,  etc.,  is  almost  invariably  short ;  and  the  i  in  nigra-  and 
its  derivatives  is  almost  always  long.     In  bijugis^  quadrVugis,  the  i  is  short. 


Quantity  of  Final  Syllables.  265 

e.  In  Early  Latin,  s  at  the  end  of  words  was  not  sounded,  and 
hence  does  not  make  position  with  another  consonant.  In  many 
other  cases  in  the  comic  poets  two  consonants  do  not  make  position, 
especially  in  pronouns  and  particles  :  as,  Xile,  iste,  nSmpe. 

Remark.  —  A  short  syllable,  made  long  by  the  rule  in  d^  is  said  to  be 
long  by  Position  :  as,  in  docetne.  In  docesne,  the  same  syllable  is  long  by 
the  general  rule.  The  rules  of  Position  do  not,  in  general,  apply  to 
final  vowels. 

a.  —  Final  Syllables. 

348.  The  Quantity  of  Final  Syllables  is  determined  by 
the  following  Rules  :  — 

1.  Words  of  one  syllable  ending  in  a  vowel  are  Long  :  as,  me, 
tii,  hi,  ne. 

The  attached  particles  -ne,  -qug,  -v6,  -eg,  -pte,  and  re-  (r6d-) 
are  short  ;  se-  is  long  :  as,  secedit,  exercitumqu^  rSducit.  But  re 
is  often  long  in  religio,  {relligio),  retuli  (rettuli),  repuli  {reppuli). 

2.  Nouns  and  adjectives  of  one  syllable  are  Long :  as,  sol, 
63  (oris),  bos,  vis. 

Exceptions.  —  cor  (sometimes  long),/^/,  Idc^  mH,  os  {pssis)  vtr. 

3.  Most  monosyllabic  Particles  are  Short :  as,  an,  in,  cis,  n6c. 
But  dc^  eras,  cur,  en,  noti,  quin,  sin — with  adverbs  in  o:  as, 
hlc,  hue,  sie  —  are  long ;  tot  and  quot  indeclinable  are  also  short. 

4.  Final  a  in  words  declined  by  cases  is  Short,  except  in  the 
ablative  singular  of  the  first  declension  ;  in  all  other  words  it  is 
Long:  as,  ea  Stella  (nom.),  cum  ea  stella  (abl.)  ;  frustra,  voca 
(imperat.),  postea,  triginta  ;  also,  qua  (for  quae,  plural). 

Exceptions.  —  eid,  itd,  qtdd,  putd  {suppose)  ;  and,  in  late  use, 
trigintd,  etc. 

5.  Final  e  is  Short,  as  in  nubS,  ducitg,  saepS.     Except  — 

1.  In  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  :  2is,  Jide  (also  fame),  hodie 
{hoc  die),  qudre  {qua  re). 

2.  In  adverbs  formed  from  adjectives  of  the  first  and  second 
declension,  with  o*^\ers  of  like  form  :  as,  alte,  miser e,  aperte, 
saepissime.     ^o  fere,  ferme,  probably  of  same  origin. 

3.  In  the  imperative  singular  of  the  second  conjugation:  as, 
vide,  inone. 

Exceptions.  —  ben^,  mal^;  infem^,  supern^j  rarely,  cavg, 
hab^,  tac^,  vaU,  vidL 


266  Prosody, 

6.  Final  1  is  long :  as  in  turri,  fill,  audi.  But  it  is  Common  in 
mihi^  tibi,  sibi,  tbt,  ubi;  and  Short  in  tiisX^  qtiasif,  cul  (when  mak- 
ing two  syllables),  and  in  Greek  vocatives,  as  Alext. 

7.  Final  o  is  Common  ;  but  long  in  datives  and  ablatives,  also, 
almost  invariably,  in  verbs,  and  in  nouns  of  the  third  declension. 

Exceptions.  —  cito,  modd,  ilico,  profectd,  dummodd,  immd, 
c'go,  dud,  odd. 

8.  Final  u  is  Long  ;  final  y  is  Short. 

9.  Final  as,  ea,  os,  are  Long;   final  is,  us,  ys,  are  Short:    as, 
nefas,  rupes,  servos,  honos  ;  hostis,  amioiis,  Tethj^s. 

Exceptions.  —  as  is  short  in  Greek  plural  accusatives,  as 
lampadds J  and  in  anas. 

es  is  short  in  nouns  of  the  third  declension  (lingual)  having  a 
short  vowel  in  the  stem  (but  sedes,  etc.)  :  as,  milSs  (Itis),  obsSs, 
(Idis),  —  except  abies,  aries,  paries,  pes;  in  the  present  of  esse  (6s, 
ad6s)  ;  in  the  preposition  pengs  and  in  the  plural  of  Greek  nouns, 
as  heroes,  lampadds. 

OS  is  short  in  compds,  impds  ;  in  the  Greek  nominative  ending 
as  barbitds J  also  o  for  later  u  in  the  second  declension,  as  servds 
(nominative). 

is  in  plural  cases  is  long,  as  in  bonis,  nobis,  vobis,  omnia, 
(accusative  plural)  ;  fis,  sis,  vis,  (with  quivis,  etc.),  velis,  mails, 
nolis ;  in  gratis,  foris  (properly  plurals)  ;  in  the  second  person 
singular  of  the  fourth  conjugation,  as,  audis  (where  it  is  the  stem  1 
vowel)  ;  and  sometimes  in  the  forms  in  -eris  (perfect  subjunctive), 
where  it  was  originally  long. 

US  is  long  (by  contraction)  in  the  genitive  singular  and  nomina- 
tive and  accusative  plural  of  the  fourth  declension ;  and  in  nouns     , 
of  the  third  declension  having  u  long  in  the  stem :  as,  virtus  (////>),    I 
incas  (udis).     But  pecus^  udis.  1 

10.  Of  other  final  syllables,  those  ending  in  a  consonant,  except     i 
o,  are  Short :  as,  &d,  So,  istHc,  amiit,  sunSLttir. 

Exceptions.  — donh.fdc,  nic,  sometimes  Mc\  en,  ndn^quln, 
iln ;  crds,  plus ;  car,  pdr,  air. 

3.  —  Penultimate   Syllables. 

349.  A  Noun  is    said   to  increase,  when  in  any  case   I 
it  has  more   syllables   than  in  the  nominative  singular. 


Penultimate  Syllables.  267 

A  Verb  is  said  to  increase,  when  in  any  part  it  has 
more  syllables  than  in  the  Stem,  inclusive  of  the  fifial 
vowel :  as,  amd-,  teg^-,  capi-} 

a.  The  final  syllable  of  an  inflected  word  is  called  the  Termina- 
tion ;  that  immediately  preceding  is  called  the  Increment. 

b.  In  such  words  as  stelldrum,  corporis,  amdtis,  tegitis,  the 
penultimate  syllable  is  called  the  increment.  In  ittnSribus, 
amav^ritis,  the  syllables  marked  are  called  the  first,  second,  and 
third  increments  of  the  noun  or  verb. 

350.  In  the  increment  of  nouns  and  adjectives,  a  and 
o  are  generally  Long  ;  e,  i,  u,  y,  generally  Short :  as, 

aetatis,  honoris,  servorum ;  opSris,  carminis,  murmtiris, 
peciidis,  chlamydia.     Exceptions  are  :  — 

a:  — baccar  (arts),  hepar  (dtis),  jubar  {dris),  lar  {Idris)^  mas 
{mdris),  nectar  {dris),  par  {pdris),  sal  {satis),  vas  {vddis),  daps 
{ddpis),  fax  {facts),  anthrax  (dcis). 

6 :  —  neuters  of  the  third  declension  (except  os,  oris)  :  as,  cor- 
pus {oris) ;  also,  arbor  {oris),  scrobs  {scrobis),  ops  {dpts\  bos  ipdvis). 

e: — increments  of  fifth  declension;  also  heres  {edis),  lex 
{legis),  locuples  {etis),  merces  {edis),  plebs  (plebis),  quies{etis),  rex 
{regis),  ver  {veris),  crater  {-eris).    But  see  §  347.  2. 

i  :  — most  nouns  and  adjectives  in  ix :  2iS,felfcis,  radicis  (except 
flix,  nix,  strix);  dis  {ditis),  glis  {gliris),  lis  {litis),  vis  {vires), 
Quirites,  Sammies. 

u: — forms  from  nouns  in  us:  as,  paludis,  tellUris,  virtutis j 
also,  lux  {lucis),frux  {frUgis). 

351.  In  the  increments  of  Verbs  the  characteristic 
vowels  are  as  follows:  — 

1.  Of  the  first  conjugation  a  :  as,  amdre,  amdtur. 

2.  Of  the  second  conjugation  e  :  as,  monere,  monetur. 

3.  Of  the  third  conjugation  S,  I :  as,  tegSre,  tegttur. 

4.  Of  the  fourth  congugation  i :  as,  audire,  auditur, 

Exc.  —  do  and  its  compounds  have  S  :  as,  ddre,  circumddbat. 

1  The  rules  of  Increment  are  purely  arbitrary,  as  the  syllables  are  long  or  short 
according  to  the  proper  quantity  of  the  Stem  or  of  the  formative  terminations.  The 
quantity  of  noun-stems  appears  in  the  schedule  of  the  third  declension  (see  67) ; 
and  that  of  terminations  is  seen  under  the  various  Inflections,  where  it  is  better  to 
learn  them.     For  quantities  of  Greek  stems,  see  63  (p.  25). 


268  Prosody, 

a.  In  other  verbal  increments  (not  stem-vowels)  — 
a  is  always  Long :  as,  monearis,  tegamua. 

e  is  Long  :  as,  tegebam,  audiebar.  But  it  is  short  before  -ram, 
-rim,  -ro;  in  the  future  personal  endings  -bgris,  -bgre;  and  some- 
times in  the  perfect  -grunt  (as  stH^runtque  comae,  Mn.  ii.  774). 

i  is  Long  in  forms  after  the  analogy  of  the  fourth  conjugation  : 
as,  petivi,  lacessitus  (in  others  short :  as,  monitus)  ;  also  in  the 
subjunctive  present  of  esse  and  velle  {simus,  veltmus)  ;  and 
(rarely)  in  the  endings  -rimus,  -ritis  ;  but  short  in  the  future  forms 
amabitis,  etc. 

o  is  found  only  in  imperatives,  and  is  always  Long. 

u  is  Short  in  silmus,  volttmus,  quaestlmus  ;  in  the  Supine  and 
its  derivatives  it  is  long  :  as,  solutiirus. 

b.  Perfects  and  Supines  of  two  syllables  lengthen  the  first 
syllable :  ^  as,  juvi,  jutum  {juvo),  vidi,  visum  {video) ;  fugi 
ifiigid). 

Exceptions.  —  btbi,dSdi{do),fidi(Jindo),  sctdi{scindd),  stHi 
(sto),  stUi  {sisio),  tUli  {fero)j  —  clium  {cieo\  ddtum  {do\  Itum 
{ed),  litum  {lino),  quUum  {queo),  rdtum  {reor),  rututn  {ruo\sAtum 
sero),  si  turn  {sino),  stdtum  (jto  or  sisto).  In  some  compounds  of 
sto,  stdtum  is  found  long,  ?lS  prostdtum. 

c.  Reduplicated  perfects  shorten  both  syllables :  as,  c6cldi 
{cddo\  didici  {disco),  pttpttgi  {pungo)  ;  also  ctlcurri  {curro), 
tgtendl  {tendo\  mSmordi  {mordeo).  But  cScidi  from  caedo,  pe- 
pedi  from  pido. 

352.  The  following  terminations  are  preceded  by  a 
long  vowel. 

1.  -al,  -ar :  as  vectlgal,  pulvlnar;  and  numeral  endings,  as 
vicesimus. 

Exceptions. — antmal^  cdpttal,  jUbar. 

2.  -brum,  -crum,  -trum  :  as,  Idvdcrum,  dilubrum^  vir&trum. 

3.  -do,  -ga,  -go :  2^,formldo,  aurlga,  imdgo. 
Exceptions.  — cddo,  divide,  ido,  mddo,  sdltdo,  spddo,  tripldo; 

canga,fiiga,  tdga,pldga;  dgo,  igo,  tigo,  nigo,  rigo, 

4.  -le,  -les,  -lis  :  as,  anclle,  miles,  crudilis,  hosHlis. 

*  Either  by  contraction  or  vowel-increase,  perhaps  both. 


Penultimate  Syllables.  269 

Exceptions.  —  mdl^j  indoles,  sicbdlesj  gracilis,  hUmilis,  stmi- 
liSf  st^rtlis;  and  verbal  adjectives  in  ills  :  as,  dmdbUis,  docilis, 
fdcUis,  terrlbilis. 

5.  -ma, -men, -mentum  :  2iS,  poe?na,Jltimen,jumentum. 
Exceptions. — dntma,    lacrima,   victtmaj    tdmen,   columen; 

with  rSgtmen  and  the  like  from  verb-stems. 

6.  -muB,  -nus,  -rus,  -sus,  -tus ,  -neus,  -rius  :  as,  extremus,  siipi- 
nus,  octoni,  s^verus,  fumosus,  pSrttus,  sendrius,  extrdneus. 

Exceptions.  —  (^.)  I  before  -mus  :  as,  finitimus,  mdrttimus, 
(except  bfrnus,  trimus  guadrimus,  dpinius,  ?mmus,  limus)  ;  and 
in  superlatives  (except  imus,  primus)  ;  domus,  humus,  nimus, 
cdldmus,  thdldmus. 

(b.)  i  before  -nus:  as  in  crastlnus,  fraxinus,  &^c.  (except  divi- 
nus,  mdtutmus,  vespertinus,  repentmus)  ;  dstnus,  comtnusy  emtnus, 
domtnus,  f acinus,  protmus,  termtnus,  vdticinus  j  mdnus,  ocednus, 
Pldtdnus ;  gSnus ;  bonus,  onus,  sonus.     But  divinus  and  the  like. 

(^.)  g  before  -rus  :  as,  m^rus,  hM^ra  (except  procerus,  since- 
rus,  sSverus')  ;  also,  barbdrus,  chorus,  nurus,  plrus j  sdttra,  am- 
phora, ancora,  lyra,  purpura;  forum,  pdrum. 

{d.)  Id  tus,  mStus,  vStus,  digitus,  servUus,  splrttus ;  quo  tus, 
tdtusj  habitus,  and  the  like,  anhelitus. 

7.  -na,  -ne,  -nis  :  as,  carina,  mane,    indnis. 

Exceptions.  —  adv^na,  dotntna,  femina,  mdcMna,  mtna,  gSna, 
pdgtnaj  b^ne,  sine;  cdnis,  cinis,  juv^nis. 

8.  -re,  -ris,  -ta,  -tis  :  as,  altdre,  sdlutdris,  moneta,  immitis. 
Exceptions.  —  mdre,  hildris,  rota,  nota,  sitis,  potis,  and  most 

nouns  in  -ita. 

9.  -tim,  -tum,  and  syllables  beginning  with  v  :  as,  privdtim, 
quercetum,  oliva. 

Exceptions. — affdtim,  stdtim;  nivis  {nix);  brSvis,  grdvis, 
l^vis  {light)  ;  ndvus,  novem;  and  several  verb  roots  (as,  Jiivo, 
fdveo)y  also  dvis,  bovis,  Jdvis, 

10.  -dex,  -lex,  -mex,  -rex,  -dix,  -nix  :  and  the  numeral  endings 
-ginti,  ginta  :  as,  judex,  ilex,  rddix,  viginti,  triginta. 

Exceptions.  —  cHlex,  silex,  riimex. 

353.  The  following  terminations  are  preceded  by  a 
«hort  vowel :  — 

I.  -CUB,  -dus,  -lus  :  as,  rusticus,  cdlidus,  glddidlus. 


270  Prosody. 

Exceptions,  — dpdcus,  dmicus  ;  apricus,ftcus,  mendlcus ^  pudi- 
cusj  fidusy  nidus,  sidus  j  and  u  before  -dus  :  as,  crudus,  nudus; 
e  before  -lus,  2iS  phdselus  {except  ^^/us,  scilus);  dstlus ;  lilcus, 

2.  -no,  -nor,  -ro,  -ror,  in  verbs  :  as,  destlno,  erf  minor,  giro, 
quiror. 

Exceptions.  — festino^  prdplno,  sdglno,  oplnor,  inclinoj 
decldro,  spero,  sptro,  oro,  duro,  mlror. 

3.  -ba,  -bo,  -pa,  -po  :  2i%,fdba,  Mbo,  liipa,  cripo. 
Exceptions.  —  ^/<?/J^,  scrlba;  bubo,  nubo,  scrtboj  papa,  pupa, 

ripa,  scdpa,  stupa;  capo,  repo,  stipo. 

4.  -tas  (in  nouns),  -ter  and  -tus  (in  adverbs):  as,  clvUas, 
forttter,  penttus. 

5.  -cuius,  -ceUus,  -lentus,  -tudo  :  as,  fasciculus,  dcellus,  liicii- 
lentus,  magnitudo. 

354.  The  following  are  the  rules  for  the  quantity  of 
Derivatives :  — 

a.  Forms  from  the  same  Stem  retain  the  original  quantity :  as, 
dmo,  dfnavistij  ginus,  gineris. 

Exceptions.  —  i.  bos,  Idr,  mds,  par,  pes,  sal,  vds  —  also  arbos 
(not  arbdr)  —  have  a  long  vowel  in  the  nominative  from  short 
stems. 

2.  Nouns  in  or,  genitive  oris,  have  the  vowel  shortened  before 
the  final  r  :  as,  hondr.  (But  this  shortening  is  comparatively  late, 
so  that  in  Plautus  and  some  inscriptions  these  nominatives  are 
often  found  long.) 

3.  Many  verb-forms  with  original  long  vowel  shorten  it  before 
final  r  or  t :  as,  amit,  dicerH  (compare  amemus),  audit,  fit.  (The 
final  syllable  in  t  of  the  perfect  seems  to  have  been  originally  long, 
but  to  have  been  shortened  under  this  rule.) 

b.  Forms  from  the  same  Root  often  vary  in  quantity  from 
vowel  increase  {?>ee  10.  a,  158.  a);  as,  dlco  (cf.  maledlcus)^  duco 
{diicis),  fldo  {perfldus),  vocis  (vdco),  legio  {ligo.) 

c.  Compounds  retain  the  quantity  of  the  words  which  com- 
pose  them :    as,  occXdo   {cddo),  occldo  {caedo)y  iniquus  {aeguus). 

d.  Greek  words  compounded  with  -npo  have  o  short,  ^^  prdpheta, 
prdldgus.  Some  Latin  compounds  of  pro  have  o  short,  as  prd- 
ficiscor,  prdjiteor.  Compounds  with  ne  vary :  as,  nifas,  nigo, 
niqueo,  nequis,  nequam.     So  dejiro  and  pejiro  from  juro. 


Rhythm,  271 


Chapter  II.  —  Rhythm. 

Note.  —  The  essence  of  the  Rhythm  of  poetry  is  the  regular  recur- 
rence of  syllables  which  are  pronounced  with  more  stress  than  those  in- 
tervening. To  produce  this  effect  in  its  perfection,  precisely  equal  times 
should  occur  between  the  recurrences  of  the  stress.  But,  in  the  applica- 
tion of  rhythm  to  words  to  form  poetry,  the  exactness  of  the  intervals 
of  time  is  sacrificed  somewhat  to  the  necessary  length  of  the  words  ; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  words  are  forced  somewhat  in  their  pronun- 
ciation, to  produce  more  nearly  the  proper  intervals  of  time.  These 
two  adaptations  take  place  in  very  different  degrees  ;  one  language  disre- 
garding more  the  intervals  of  time,  and  another  more  the  pronunciation 
of  the  words. 

The  Greek  language  early  developed  a  very  strict  rhythmical  form 
of  poetry,  in  which  the  intervals  of  time  were  all-important.  The 
earliest  Latin,  on  the  other  hand,  —  as  in  the  Saturnian  and  Fescennine 
verse,  —  was  not  so  restricted.  But  the  pure  metrical  forms  were  after- 
wards adopted  from  the  Greek,  so  that  all  the  principal  poetry  with 
which  we  have  to  do  follows  for  the  most  part  Greek  rules,  which  re- 
quire the  formal  division  of  words  (like  music)  into  measures  of  equal 
times,  technically  called  Feet.  In  poetry  that  was  sung  doubtless  the 
strict  rhythm  was  more  closely  followed  in  practice  than  in  that  which 
was  declaimed  or  intoned.  In  neither  language,  however,  is  the  time 
perfectly  preserved,  even  in  single  measures  ;  and  there  are  some  cases 
In  which  the  regularity  of  the  true  time  between  the  ictuses  is  disturbed. 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  bothdistinguished  syllables  of  two  kinds  in 
regard  to  the  length  of  time  required  for  their  pronunciation,  viz.,  longs 
and  shorts,  in  the  ratio  of  two  to  one.  But  it  must  not  be  supposed  that 
all  long  syllables  were  of  equal  length,  or  even  that  in  a  given  passage 
each  long  had  just  twice  the  length  of  the  contiguous  shorts.  The  ratio 
was  only  approximate  at  best,  though  necessarily  more  exact  in  singing 
than  in  recitation.  Nor  are  longs  and  shorts  the  only  forms  of  syllables 
that  are  found.  In  some  cases  a  long  syllable  was  protracted,  so  as  to 
have  the  time  of  three  or  even  of  four  shorts,  and  often  a  long  or  two 
shorts  were  pronounced  in  less  than  their  proper  time,  though  doubtless 
distinguishable  in  time  from  one  short  (see  355.  c,  d.).  Sometimes  a 
syllable  naturally  short  seems  to  have  been  slightly  prolonged,  so  as  to 
represent  a  long,  though  in  most  (not  all)  cases  the  apparent  irregu- 
larity can  be  otherwise  explained.  In  a  few  cases,  also,  a  pause  takes 
the  place  of  one  or  more  syllables  to  fill  out  the  required  length  of  the 
measure.  This  could,  of  course,  take  place  only  at  the  end  of  a  word  : 
Hence  the  importance  of  Caesura  and  Diaeresis  in  prosody  (see  358). 


272  Prosody. 

Measures. 

355.  Rhythm  consists  of  the  division  of  musical  sound 
into  MEASURES  or  FEET.  The  most  natural  division  of 
musical  time  is  into  measures  consisting  of  either  two  or 
three  equal  parts,^  besides  which,  the  ancients  also  dis- 
tinguished those  of  five  equal  parts.^ 

Remark.  —  The  divisions  of  musical  time  are  marked  by  a  stress  of 
voice  on  one  or  the  other  part  of  the  measure,  called  the  ICTUS  ^beat)y  or 
metrical  accent  (see  358). 

a.  The  unit  of  length  in  Prosody  is  one  short  syllable.  This  is 
called  a  Mora.  It  is  represented  by  the  sign  ^,  orin  musical  nota- 
tion by  the  quaver^  f . 

b.  A  long  syllable  is  regularly  equal  to  two  7norce^  and  is  repre- 
sented by  the  sign  _ ,  or  by  the  crotchet  j* . 

c.  A  long  syllable  may  be  protracted^  so  as  to  occupy  the  time  of 
three  or  four  morcB  j  this  is  represented  by  the  sign  i_  (j*  *),  t_j  (P). 

d.  A  long  syllable  may  be  contracted^  so  as  to  occupy  only  the 
time  of  a  short  one  :  this  has  been  represented  by  the  sign  >. 

e.  A  short  syllable  may  be  contracted  so  as  to  occupy  less  than 
one  mora. 

f.  Pauses  sometimes  occur  at  the  end  of  verses  or  series  to  fill  up 
the  time.  A  pause  of  one  mora  in  a  measure  is  indicated  by  the 
sign  A  ;  one  of  two  morce  by  the  sign  ~R. 

g.  One  or  more  syllables  are  sometimes  placed  before  the  proper 
beginning  of  the  measure.  Such  syllables  are  called  an  Anacrusis 
or  prelude.^  It  is  regularly  equal  to  the  unaccented  part  of  the 
measure. 


1  Making  what  is  called  in  music  "  double  "  or  "  triple  "  time.  These  measures 
in  Prosody  are  commonly  called  "feet,"  following  the  usage  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
grammarians. 

2  This  division  is  not  unknown  to  modem  music,  although  rare. 

■  The  same  thing  occurs  in  modem  poetry,  and  in  modem  music  any  unaccented 
syllables  at  the  beginning  are  treated  as  an  anacnisis,  i.  e.  they  make  an  incomplete 
measure  before  the  first  bar.  This  was  not  the  case  in  ancient  music.  The  ancients 
seem  to  have  treated  any  unaccented  syllable  at  the  beginning  as  belonging  to  the 
following  accented  ones,  so  as  to  make  with  them  a  foot  or  measure.  Thus  it  would 
leem  that  the  original  form  of  Indo-European  poetry  was  iambic  in  its  structure,  ot 
at  least  accented  the  second  syllable  rather  tlian  the  first 


Rhythm.  2/^ 

356.  The  measures  most  frequently  employed  in  Latin 
verse,  together  with  their  musical  notation,  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  — 

a.  Triple  or  Unequal  Measures  (|).^ 

1.  Trochee     {J_  \j     -ff):  as,  regis. 

2.  Iambus        (w  ±      =P  P):  as,  duces.  • 

3.  Tribrach''  (^  ^  ^  =  i^  •  •)  :  as,  hofmnts. 

h.  Double  or  Equal  Measures  (|). 

1.  Dactyl      {1_  ^^^  =  f  P  f) :  as,  consults, 

2.  Anapaest  {\j\j  L  ^f  f  f)  ■  as,  monttds. 

3.  Spondee    (_^  _     =P  P)\  as,  reges. 

c.  Six-timed  Measures  (f ). 

1.  Ionic  a  majore  ( v^  w  =  f  j*  f  f) :  as,  confecSrdt, 

I    I    yJ 

2.  Ionic  <z  minor e  (w  w —  fPff)'.  as,  rHiillssent. 

3.  Choriambus      (_  w  w  _  =  f  •  I*  f )  :  contHUrdnt 

I    ^    I 

c?.  Quinary  or  Hemiolic  ^  Measures  (f ). 

1.  Cretic  (_  w  _     —fff\\  as,  consUles. 

2.  V JEO'H  primus   (_  w  w  w  =  <•  •  f  .•) :  as  cdnsUltbHs. 

I    I    I    I 

3.  PiEON  quartus  (kj  \j  y^  _  =f  f  •  .•) :  as,  ttin^rl. 


4.  Bacchius         (w =fff):  as,  dmtcos. 

/  I    I 

1  Called  diplasic,  the  two  parts  (Thesis  and  Arsis)  being  in  the  ratio  of  2 
to  I.  The  rhythm  of  the  Trochee  and  Iambus  is  essentially  the  same.  A  trochaic 
series  with  an  anacrusis  becomes  iambic,  and  an  iambic  with  the  loss  of  its  unac- 
cented part  becomes  trochaic.  The  same  is  true  of  the  dactyl  and  anapaest,  and  the 
two  Ionics.  There  is  no  reason  to  believe,  however,  that  the  accented  beginning  is 
original,  and  the  opposite  form  produced  by  anacrusis.  On  the  contrary  the  proba? 
bility  is  the  other  way. 

2  Not  a  fundamental  foot,  but  found  only  as  the  resolution  of  a  Trochee  or  Iambus, 
8  Called  hemiolic^  the  two  parts  being  in  the  ratio  of  i  to  i  .^,  or  of  3  to  2. 


274  Prosody. 

e.  Several  compound  measures  are  mentioned  by  the  gramma- 
rians, viz. ;  Antibacchlus  ( w),  Proceleusmatic  (www  w),  the 

2d  and  3d  Paon,  having  a  long  syllable  in  the  2d  and  3d  place,  with 
three  short  ones  ;  ist  -zd,  3d,  and  4th  Epitritus^  having  a  short  syl- 
lable in  the  ist,  2d,  3d,  and  4th  place,  with  three  long  ones.  None 
of  them,  however,  are  needed,  to  explain  rhythmically  all  the  forms 
of  ancient  verse. 

Note.  —  Feet  with  these  apparent  quantities  do  not  always  occupy  the 
same  time  in  the  measure,  but  are  contracted  or  prolonged  to  suit  the 
series  in  which  they  occur.  They  are  then  called  irrational,  because  the 
thesis  and  arsis  do  not  have  integral  ratios.     Such  are  :  — 

Irrational  Spondee  :    >  =   I    N  • 

Cyclic  Dactyl  :  _^  ^  ^    |     j^    ^  (or  nearly   N      IS  JS). 

3 
Cyclic  Anap^st  :  ^  the  same  reversed. 


Irrational  Trochee  :    _  >  = 


J^ 


Of  feet  and  combinations  of  feet  (sometimes  extending  to  an  entire  verse, 
and  controlled  by  a  single  leading  accent),  the  following  are  recognized, 
assuming  \  to  be  the  unit  of  musical  time  :  — 


3, 

4, 

S, 

«, 

% 

10, 

12, 

1«, 

16, 

18, 

«o. 

25. 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

Narrative  poetry  was  written  for  rhythmical  recitation,  or  Chant,  with 
instrumental  accompaniment ;  and  Lyrical  poetry  for  rhythmical  melody, 
or  singing.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  ancient  music  —  which  in  this 
differs  widely  from  modern  —  the  rhythm  of  the  melody  was  identical  with 
the  rhythm  of  the  text.  The  lyric  poetry  was  to  be  sung ;  the  poet  was 
musician  and  composer,  as  well  as  author.  To  this  day  a  poet  is  said  con- 
ventionally to  •*  sing." 

Thus  a  correct  understanding  of  the  rhythmical  structure  of  the  Verse 
gives  us  the  exact  time,  though  not  the  tttne,  to  which  it  was  actually  sung. 
The  exact  time,  however,  as  indicated  by  the  succession  of  long  and  short 
syllables,  was  varied  according  to  certain  laws  of  so-called  "  Rhythmic," 
as  will  be  explained  below.  In  reading  ancient  verse  it  is  necessary  to 
bear  in  mind  not  only  the  variations  in  the  relation  of  length  of  syllables, 
but  the  occasional  pause  necessary  to  fill  out  the  measure ;  and  to  remem- 
ber that  the  rhythmical  accent  is  the  only  one  of  importance,  though  the 
words  should  be  distinguished  carefully,  and  the  sense  preserved.  Do  not 
scan^  but  read  metrically. 

357.  In  many  cases  measures  of  the  same  time  may  be 
substituted  for  each  other,  a  long  syllable  taking  the  place 


Rhythm.  275 

of  two  short  ones,  or  two  short  ones  the  place  of  one  long 
one*  In  the  former  case  the  measure  is  said  to  be  con- 
tracted;  in  the  latter,  to  be  resolved.     Thus  :  — 

a.  A  Spondee  ( )  may  take  the  place  of  a  dactyl  ( w  w)  or 

anapaest  (v^  vy  _) ;  and  a  Tribrach  (w  w  w)  of  a  trochee  (_  w)  or 
Iambus  (w  _).  The  optional  substitution  of  a  long  for  two  short 
syllables  is  represented  by  the  sign  00. 

d.  Another  form  of  dactyl  when  substituted  for  a  trochee  —  a 
spondee  also  being  admissible  —  is  represented  thus,  _  ^X^. 

c.  When  a  long  syllable  having  the  Ictus  (358.  a)  is  resolved,  the 
ictus  properly  belongs  to  both  the  resulting  short  syllables  ;  but  the 
accent  to  indicate  it  is  placed  on  the  former :  as, 

nunc  experJar  |  sftn^  Sceto  |  tibJ  cor  acr^  in  |  pdctore. 

Bacch.  405. 

Tlie  Musical  Accent. 

358.  That  part  of  the  measure  which  receives  the  stress 
of  voice  (the  musical  accent)  is  called  the  Thesis  ;  the 
other  part  is  called  the  Arsis.^ 

a.  The  stress  of  voice  laid  upon  the  Thesis  is  called  the  Ictus 
{beat).     It  is  marked  thus  :  _!_  w  w 

b.  The  ending  of  a  word  within  a  measure  is  called  Caesura. 
When  this  coincides  with  a,  rhetorical  pause,  it  is  called  the  Caesura 
of  the  verse,  and  is  of  main  importance  as  affecting  the  melody  or 
rhythm. 

c.  The  coincidence  of  the  end  of  a  word  with  that  of  a  measure  in 
Prosody  is  called  Diaeresis. 

1  The  Thesis  signifies  properly,  the  putting  down  of  the  foot  in  beating  time,  in 
the  march  or  dance  ("downward  beat"),  and  the  Arsis  the  raising  of  the  foot 
("upward  beat").  By  the  Latin  grammarians  these  terms  were  made  to  mean,  re- 
spectively, the  ending  and  beginning  of  a  measure.  By  a  misunderstanding  which 
has  prevailed  till  recently,  since  the  time  of  Bentley,  their  true  signification  has  been 
reversed.  They  will  here  be  used  in  accordance  with  their  ancient  meaning,  as  is 
now  becoming  more  common.  This  metrical  accent,  recurring  at  regular  intervals 
of  time,  is  what  constitutes  the  essence  of  the  rhythm  of  poetry  as  distinguished 
from  prose,  and  should  be  constantly  kept  in  mind. 

The  prevailing  error  arose  from  applying  to  trochaic  and  dactylic  verse  a  dcfisi 
tion  which  was  true  only  of  iambic  or  anapaestic. 


276  Prosody, 


Chapter  III. —  Versification, 

The  Terse. 

359.  A  single  line  in  poetry  —  that  is,  a  series  of  meas- 
ures set  in  a  recognized  order  —  is  called  a  Verse.^ 

Note.  —  Most  of  the  common  verses,  however,  originally  consisted  of 
two  series,  but  the  joint  between  them  is  often  obscured.  It  is  marked  in 
Iambic  verse  by  the  Diceresis^  in  dactylic  Hexameter  by  the  Ccesiira. 

a.  A  verse  lacking  a  syllable  at  the  end  is  called  Catalectic, 
that  is,  there  is  a  pause  to  fill  the  measure  ;  if  complete  it  is  called 
AcATALECTic,  and  needs  no  pause. 

b.  To  divide  the  verse  into  its  appropriate  measures,  according  to 
the  rules  of  Quantity  and  Versification,  is  called  Scanning  or  Scan- 
sion (i.  e.  a  cli?nbing  or  advance  by  steps). 

Remark.  —  In  reading  verse  rhythmically  care  should  be  taken,  while 
preserving  the  measure  or  time  of  the  syllables,  not  to  destroy  or  confuse 
the  words  themselves,  as  is  often  done  in  scanning.  Elided  syllables 
should  be  sounded  but  lightly ;  and  if  it  is  remembered  that  final  m  had  a 
nasal  and  feeble  sound,  its  partial  suppression  before  an  initial  vowel 
(see  d )  will  be  easy. 

c.  In  scanning,  a  vowel  or  diphthong  at  the  end  of  a  word  (unless 
an  interjection)  is  partially  suppressed  when  the  next  word  begins 
with  a  vowel  or  with  h.     This  is  called  Elision  {bruising)} 

Remark.  —  Elision  is  sometimes  called  by  the  Greek  name  Synaloepha 
{smearing).  Rarely  a  syllable  is  elided  at  the  end  of  a  verse  when  the 
next  begins  with  a  vowel :  this  is  called  Synapheia  {binding). 

d.  A  final  m,  with  the  preceding  vowel,  is  suppressed  in  like 
manner :  ^  this  is  called  Ecthlipsis  {squeezing  out) :  as, 

monstr«w  horrend«w,  informs,  ingens,  cui  lumen  ademptum.  — 
jEn.  iii.  658. 

1  The  word  Verse  {x>ersus)  signifies  a  turning  back,  \.  e-  to  recommence  in  like 
manner,  as  opposed  to  Prose  {prorsus  ox  proversus\  which  means  straight  ahead. 

2  The  practice  of  Elision  is  followed  in  Italian  and  French  poetry,  and  is  some- 
times adopted  in  English,  particularly  in  the  older  poets :  as, 

To  inveigle  and  invite  th^  unwary  sense.  —  Comus,  538. 
In  early  Latin  poetry  a  final  syllable  ending  in  s  often  loses  this  letter  even  before  a 
consonant  (compare  13,  ^) :  as, 

senio  confectuj  quiescit  —  Ennius  (C.  M.  5). 
•  Hence  a  final  syllable  in  m  is  said  to  have  no  quantity  of  its  own  —  its  vowd, 
in  any  case,  being  either  elided  or  else  made  long  by  Position. 


Versification:  Hexameter,  277 

Remark.  —  The  monosyllables  do,  dem^  spe,  sj>em,  sim,  sto,  stem,  qui 
(plural)  are  never  elided;  nor  is  an  iambic  word  elided  in  dactylic  verse. 
Elision  is  often  evaded  by  skilful  collocation  of  words. 

e.  Elision  is  sometimes  omitted  when  a  w^ord  ending  in  a  vowel 
has  a  special  emphasis,  or  is  succeeded  by  a  pause.  This  is  called 
Hiatus  {gapi?tg.)    The  final  vowel  is  sometimes  shortened. 

f.  A  final  syllable,  regularly  short,  is  sometimes  lengthened  before 
a  pause  : '  it  is  then  said  to  be  long  by  Diastole  :  as, 

nostror«««  obruimur,  —  oriturque  miserrima  caedes. 

g.  The  last  syllable  of  any  verse  may  be  indifferently  long  or  short 
{syllaba  anceps). 

Formg  of  Verse. 

360.  A  verse  receives  its  name  from  its  dominant 
or  fundamental  measure:  as,  Dactylic,  Iambic^  Trochaic, 
AnapcBstic ;  and  from  the  number  of  measures  (single 
or  double)  vvhich  it  contains  :  as,  Hexameter,  Tetrameter, 
Trimeter,  Dimeter. 

Remark.  —  Trochaic,  Iambic,  and  Anapaestic  verses  are  measured  not 
by  single  feet,  but  by  pairs  (dipodia),  so  that  six  Iambi  make  a  Trimeter. 

361.  A  Stanza  or  Strophe,  consists  of  a  definite  number 
of  verses  ranged  in  a  fixed  order.  It  is  often  called  from 
the  name  of  some  eminent  poet :  as,  Sapphic,  Alcaic, 
Archilochian,  Horatian. 

1.  — Dactylic  Hexameter. 

362.  The  Dactylic  Hexameter  {Heroic  Verse)  consists 
regularly  of  six  dactyls.     It  may  be  represented  thus  :  — 

or  in  musical  notation  as  follows  :  — 

ir-iTircj'irrjir^'ir'i/irj^i 

a.  For  either  of  the  feet,  except  the  fifth,  a  spondee  may  be  sub- 
stituted, and  must  be  for  the  last.  Rarely  a  spondee  is  found  in  the 
fifth  place,  when  the  verse  is  called  spondaic. 


1  This  usage  is  comparatively  rare,  most  cases  where  it  appears  being  caused  by 
the  retention  of  an  originally  long  quantity. 


2^8  Prosody. 

b.  The  verse  must  have  one  principal  caesura  —  sometimes  two  — 
almost  always  accompanied  by  a  pause  in  the  sense.  Usually  the 
principal  caesura  is  after  the  thesis  (less  commonly  in  the  arsis)  of 
the  third  foot,  dividing  the  verse  into  two  parts  in  sense  and  rhythm. 
It  may  also  be  after  the  thesis  (less  commonly  in  the  arsis)  of  the 
fourth  foot.  In  this  case  there  is  often  another  in  the  second,  thus 
dividing  the  line  into  three  parts  :  as, 

parts  fe|rox  II  arldensqw^  6cu|lls  ||  et  |  siblla  |  coUa. 

JSn.  v.  277. 

Remark.  —  Often  the  only  indication  of  the  principal  among  a  number 
of  caesuras  is  the  break  in  the  sense.  A  caesura  occurring  after  the  first 
syllable  of  a  foot  is  called  masculine.  A  caesura  occurring  after  the  second 
syllable  of  a  foot  (as  in  the  fifth  foot  of  the  3d  and  4th  verses  in  c)  is  called 
feminine.  A  caesura  may  also  be  found  in  any  foot  of  the  verse  except  the 
first.  When  the  fourth  foot  ends  a  word,the  break  (properly  a  diaeresis) 
is  sometimes  improperly  called  bucolic  ccesura^  from  its  frequency  in  pastoral 
poetry. 

c.  The  introductory  verses  of  the  ^Eneid,  divided  according  to  the 
foregoing  rules,  will  be  as  follows,  the  principal  Caesura  in  each 
verse  being  marked  by  double  lines :  — 

Arma  vl|rumqug  cajno  ||  Trojjae  qui  |  primus  Sb  |  oris 
ItaiT|am  fri|t6  pr6fu|gus  ||  La|vTn?aqug  |  venJt 
litSrS,  j  rnvXtum  ill^  |  et  ter|ris  ||  jacftatus  St  |  alto 
VI  supe|rum  sae|vae  ||  mgm6|rem  Ju|nonIs  6b  (  iram ; 
multa  qu6|qu^  et  bel|l6  pas|sus  ||  dum  |  cond^rgt  |  urbem, 
Tnfer|retquS  dg|5s  LjltI|o,  ||  ggnus  |  undS  La|tinum, 
Alba|nTqu6  pajtres,  ||  at|qu^  altae  |  moenia  |  Romae. 

The  feminine  caesura  is  seen  in  the  following :  — 

Dis  genl|tl  p6tu|erg :  ||  t6|nent  mgdr|a  5mnm  |  sllvae. 

^n.  vi.  131. 
Note.  —  The  Hexameter  is  thus  illustrated  in  English  verse  :  — 
"  Over  the  sea,  past  Crete,  on  the  Syrian  shore  to  the  southward, 
Dwells  in  the  well-tilled  lowland  a  dark-haired  i^thiop  people, 
Skilful  with  needle  and  loom,  and  the  arts  of  the  dyer  and  carver, 
Skilful,  but  feeble  of  heart;  for  they  know  not  the  lords  of  Olympus, 
Lovers  of  men  ;  neither  broad-browed  Zeus,  nor  Pallas  Athen^, 
Teacher  of  wisdom  to  heroes,  bestower  of  might  in  the  battle  ; 
Share  not  the  cunning  of  Hermes,  nor  list  to  the  songs  of  Apollo, 
Fearing  the  stars  of  the  sky,  and  the  roll  of  the  blue  salt  water." 

Kingsley*s  Andromeda. 


Versification.  279 

^.  — £legiac  Stanza. 

363.  The  Elegiac  Stanza  is  constructed  by  alternating 
the  hexameter  verse  with  the  so-called  Pentameter,^  which 
is  the  same  with  it,  only  omitting  the  last  half  of  the 
fourth  and  sixth  feet :  as, 

\70    I  —  \7D   I  —   II    A    I  —  wwj  —  \J  \j\  A 


r  Lj  ii  u  1 1     I  u 


.•r 


a.  The  Pentameter  verse  is  thus  to  be  scanned  as  two  half-verses, 
of  which  the  latter  always  consists  of  two  dactyls  followed  by  a  sin- 
gle syllable. 

b.  The  Pentameter  has  no  regular  Caesura;  but  the  first  half- 
verse  must  always  end  with  a  word,  which  is  followed  by  a  pause  to 
complete  the  measure.'' 

c.  The  following  verses  will  illustrate  the  forms  of  the  Elegiac 
Stanza : — 

cum  subit  I  nil  I  us  trIs|tTssima  |  noctis  ijmago 

qua  mihls\ipre|miim  |  A  ||  tempus  in  |  urbe  fu|It, 

cum  repel  to  nocltem  qua  |  tot  mlhl  |  cara  rejliqui, 

labitur  |  ex  6cu|lis  A  ||  nunc  quoque  |  gutta  me|is. 

jam  prope  |  \vlx  ade|rat  qua  |  me  dlsjcedere  Caesar 
finlbus  I  extre|mae  a  ||  jusserat  |  Ausonijae. 

Ovid.  Trist.  i.  3. 

Note.  —  The  Elegiac  Stanza  differs  widely  in  character  from  hexameter 
verse  (of  which  it  is  a  mere  modification)  by  its  division  into  Distichs, 
each  of  which  must  have  its  own  sense  complete.  It  is  employed  in  a  great 
variety  of  compositions,  —  epistolary,  amatory,  or  mournful,  —  and  was 
especially  a  favorite  of  the  poet  Ovid.  It  has  been  illustrated  in  English 
verse,  imitated  from  the  German  :  — 

"  In  the  Hexlameter  |  rises  the  |  fountain's  |  silvery  |  column ; 
In  the  Pen|tameter  |  aye  ||  falling  in  |  melody  |  back." 

1  Called  pentameter  by  the  old  grammarians,  who  divided  it,  formally,  into  five 
feet  (two  dactyls  or  spondees,  a  spondee,  and  two  anapaests),  as  follows :  — 

II  wwl  ww|  il  |vyw Iww II 

2  The  time  of  this  pause,  however,  may  be  filled  by  ^q  protraction  of  the  pre- 
ceding syllable,  thus :  — 

\j  \j  \ vyv^|i_j||  v^wl  wv^l  —  A 


28o  Prosody. 

3.  —  Other  Dactylic  Terseg. 

364.  Rarely  other  dactylic  verses  or  half-verses  are  used 
by  the  lyric  poets.     Thus  :  — 

a.  The  Dactylic  Tetrameter  alternates  with  the  hexameter,  form- 
the  Alcmanian  Strophe^  as  follows  :  — 

O  for|tes  pe|j5raque  |  passi, 
mecum  |  saepe  vl|rl  ||  nunc  |  vino  |  pellltS  |  curas ; 
eras  in  I  gens  itelrablmus  |  aequor. 

HoR.  —  6>f/.  i.  7  (so  28  ;  Ep.  12). 
Note.  —  This  is  a  single  measure,  its  time  being  represented  by  -^ 

b.  The  Dactylic  Penthemim  (five  half-feet)  consists  of  half  a 
pentameter  verse.  It  is  used  in  combination  with  the  Hexameter, 
forming  the  First  Archilochian  Strophe  :  as, 

difFuIgerS  nl|ves  ||  redelunt  jam  |  gramtna  |  campis, 

arb6rl|busque  colmae; 
mutat  I  terra  vT|ces  ||  et  |  decres|centia  |  ripas 
flumlna  |  praetergjunt. 

HoR.  —  Oii.  iv.  7. 
[For  the  Fourth  Archilochian  Strophe  (Archilochian  Heptameter,  alter- 
nating with  iambic  trimeter  catalectic),  see  372.  il.] 

4.  —  Iambic  Trimeter. 

365.  The  Iambic  Trimeter  is  the  ordinary  verse  of 
dramatic  dialogue.  It  consists  of  three  measures,  each 
containing  a  double  iambus  {iambic  dipody)  :  as, 

It  is  seen  in  the  following :  — 

jam  )am  efftca|cl  do  mSnus  |  scIentTae 
supplex  dt  5|ro  regna  per  |  Pr6serplnae, 
p€r  et  DIa|nae  non  mdvenlda  numtna, 
p$r  atqu2  iTlbrds  carmlnum  |  vSlentlum 
de|fix<1  cae|lo  dev6ca|r6  stdSra, 
ClnTd/^  par|c5  vocTbus  |  tandem  sScrTs, 
cItumquS  re|tr6  retrS  s6l|vt5  turbTnem. 

HoR.  Epod.  17. 

It  is  represented  in  English  by  the  Alexandrine:  as, 
**  Hyperion's  march  they  spy,  and  glittering  shafts  of  war."  —  Gray. 


Versification:  Iambic.  281 

a.  The  Iambic  Trimeter  is  often  used  in  lyric  poetry,  alternating 
with  the  Dimeter,  making  the  Iambic  Strophe^  as  follows :  — 

beatus  il|le  qui  procul  |  negotHs, 
ut  prisca  gens  |  mortalium, 
paterna  ru|ra  bubus  ex|ercet  suis, 

solutus  om|ni  fenore  ; 
neque  exclta|tur  classico  |  miles  truci, 
j  nequ^  horret  i|ratum  mare  ; 

'  forumque  vl|tat,  et  super  |ba  cMum 

p6tenti5|rum  limlna. 

HOR.  Epod.  2. 

b.  In  the  Iambic  Trimeter  an  irrational  spondee  or  its  equivalent 
(anapaest  or  dactyl)  may  be  regularly  substituted  for  the  first  iambus 
of  either  pair ;  also  a  Tribrach  {^  ^  sj)  anywhere  except  in  the 
last  place.  In  the  comic  poets  these  substitutions  may  be  made 
in  any  foot  except  the  last :  as, 

O  liicls  all  me  rdctor  ||  et  |  caeli  decus  ! 

qu2  altdrna  cur|ru  sp^tia  ||  flam|mlfer^  dmbiens, 

illustre  lae|tis  ||  ^xseris  |  terris  capiit. 

Seneca.  Here.  Fur.  592  -  94. 
quid  quadrls  ?  an|n6s  sdxSgTnlta  ndtus  es 
aut  plus  ut  conjficl*?  ;  i.gxum  In  his  |  regidnlbus. 

Terence.  —  Heaut.  10,  11. 
homd  s,um:  huma|ni  ||  n/hil  a  m/?  ali|enum  piitd. 
vel  md  monejr^  hoc  ||  v^l  perc5n|tari  puta. 

id.  Heaut.  77,  78. 

c.  The  Choliambic  {lame  Iambic^  substitutes  a  trochee  for  the 
last  iambus  :  as, 

11^  —  w— l^_w_|w_i_|_AII  ! 

aequ^  ^st  beajtus  dc  p6e|ma  cum  scribit :  ! 

tam  gaudet  In  ]  se,  tumque  s^  ip|se  miratur. 

Catull.  xxii.  15,  16. 

d.  The  Iambic  Trimeter  Catalectic  is  represented  as  follows  :  — 

II  )^  —\j |:^_w_|wL_v>:  II 

It  is  used  in  combination  with  other  measures  (see  372,  11),  and 
is  shown  in  the  following :  — 

Vulcdniis  arjdens  urTt  ofifltcfnas. 

HoR.  —  Od.  i.  4. 
or  in  English :  — 

"  On  purple  peaks  a  deeper  shade  descending."  —  Scott, 


282  Prosody. 

Note.  —  The  Iambic  Trimeter  may  be  regarded,  metrically,  as  "  a  sin- 
gle foot  "  (its  time  being  represented  by  V).  consisting  of  three  dipodies, 
and  having  its  principal  accent,  probably,  on  the  second  syllable  of  the 
verse,  though  this  is  a  matter  of  dispute.  The  spondee  in  this  verse,  being 
a  substitute  for  an  iambus,  is  irrational^  and  must  be  shortened  to  fit  the 
measure  of  the  iambus  (represented  by  > ). 

5.  —  Other  Iambic  Verse. 

366.  Some  other  forms  of  Iambic  verse  are  used,  as 
follows  :  — 

a.  The  Iambic  Tetrameter  Catalectic  {Septenarius)  consists  of 
seven  iambic  feet,  with  the  same  substitutions  as  the  above.  It  is 
used  in  more  lively  dialogue :  as, 

i\afn  idcirc^  arces|s5r,  nuptlas  |  qu5d  m/ddpara|rl  sdnslt. 
quibus  qutdem  quam  facl|le  pdtuerat  |  qul^scl  si  hie  |  quidsset ! 

Ter.    Andria^  690,  691. 
The   rhythm   of   the    Iambic   Septenarius   may  be   represented 
according  to  our  musical  notation  (see  note  3,  p.  272) :  — 

llwi^w_w|JLw_w|^w_w|i A  II 

Its  movement  is  like  the  following  :  — 

"  New  principles  I  found  would  fit  full  well  my  constitution." 

Vicar  of  Bray. 

b.  The  Iambic  Tetrameter  Acatalectic  {Octonarius)  consists  of 
eight  full  iambic  feet  with  the  same  substitutions.  It  is  also  used 
in  lively  dialogue  :  as, 

hSctndst  humalnum  fdctw  aut  Tn|cept;/  ?  hdctnest  oflflfclum  pStrls  ? 
quid  illud  est?  pro  1  d^um   fidem,  |  quid  ^st,  si  hoc  n5n  conjtu- 
m^llast  ?  Andria^  236,  237. 

c.  The  Iambic  Dimeter  consists  of  either  four  {acatalectic)  or 
three  and  a  half  {catalectic)  iambic  feet.  The  former  is  used  (as 
above,  365.  a)  in  combination  with  a  longer  verse,  and  the  latter  only 
in  choruses:  as, 

qudniim  crQenlti  Mannas, 
praec^ps  Xm6|rS  sadv5, 
rSpItur  qu6d  im|p5tdntl 
fiiclnus  pJUat  I  fiirdrg  ? 

Sen.  Medea^  850  -  853. 


Versification :  Mixed  Measures.  283 

6.  —  Trochaic  Verse.  , 

367.  The  most  common  form  of  Trochaic  verse  is  the 
Tetrameter  catalectic  (Septenarius)^  consisting  of  four 
dipodies  lacking  a  syllable.  It  is  represented  metrically 
thus : — 

liLw_>|I.w_>lli.w_>Uw_AII 
or  in  musical  notation, 

ir'rnr'rjir'r'ir'f'i 

dd  Xe  advenio,  spem,  salutem,  c6nsili«/^z  B.uxilmm  ^xpetens. 

Ter.     Andr.  ii.  18. 
In  English  verse  :  — 

"  Tell  me  not  in  mournful  numbers  life  is  but  an  ei  npty  dream." 

Longfellow. 

a.  Strictly  the  spondee  and  its  resolutions  can  be  substituted  only 
in  the  even  places  ;  but  the  comic  poets  allow  the  substitution  in 
every  foot  but  the  last :  as, 

itidem  habet  petal s«»z  dc  vestitum :  |  tdm  consimilist  |  dtqu^  ego. 
sura,  pes,  sta|tura,  tonsus,  |  dculi,  nasum,  |  vdl  labra, 
mdlae,  mentum,  |  bd,rba,collus  ;  |  tdtus  !  quid  verjbis  opust? 
si  tergum  ci|cdtricosum,  |  nihil  hoc  similist  |  similius. 

Plaut.    Amphitr.  443  -  446. 

b.  Some  other  forms  of  trochaic  verse  are  found  in  the  lyric  poets, 
in  combination  with  other  feet,  either  as  whole  lines  or  parts  of 
lines :  as, 

ndn  ebur  nejqw^  aureum  \dim.  catal.'] 

mei  reni|det  in  domo  la|cunar  {^lamb.  trim,  catal.']. 

HOR.  —  Od.  ii.  18. 

7.  —  Mixed  Measures. 

Note.  —  Different  measures  are  combined  in  the  same  verse  in  two 
different  ways.  Either  a  series  of  one  kind  was  simply  joined  to  a  series 
of  another  kind  —  analogous  to  the  changes  of  rhythm  not  uncommon  in 
modern  music  ;  or  single  feet  of  other  times  were  combined  with  the  pre- 
vailing measures,  in  which  case  these  odd  feet  were  adapted  by  a  change 
in  their  quantity,  becoming  irrational  (see  356,  Note).  When  measures 
of  one  kind  occur,  enough  to  form  a  series,  we  may  suppose  a  change  of 
rhythm  ;  where  they  are  isolated  we  must  suppose  adaptation.  Of  the 
indefinite  number  of  possible  combinations  but  few  are  found  in  Latin 
poetry. 


284  Prosody. 

368.  The  following  Verses,  composed  of  different 
rhythmical  series,  are  found  in  Latin  lyrical  poetry :  — 

1.  Greater  Archilochian  (Dactylic  Tetrameter;  Trochaic 
Tripody)  :  — 

ll_ow|_vX/|_c7o|_c^:/ll_v^|_w|_>ll 
soMtiir  ]  acris  hi |  ems  grajta  vice  ||  veris  |  et  Fa|voni. 

Hor.  —  Od.  i.  4. 
It  is  possible  that  the  dactyls  may  have  been  cyclic;  but  the 
change  of  measure  seems  more  probable. 

2.  Verse  consisting  of  Dactylic  Tetrameter  catalectic  {Dactylic 
Penthemim) ;  Iambic  Dimeter :  — 

II  wv^l  KJ  \j\  —  II  w  —  \j  —  \\D  —  \j  —  II 

scribSr;  |  versIcu|los  ||  amorS  per|culsum  jiivat. 

id.  Ep.  II. 
8.  —  liOgaoedic  Verse. 

369.  Trochaic  verses  containing  irrational  measures  or 
feet  in  regular  prescribed  positions  are  called  Logacedic. 
The  principal  logacedic  forms  are:  — 

1.  Logacedic  Tetrapody  (J'our  feet) :  Glyconic. 

2.  Logacedic  Tripody  {three  feet) :  Pherecratic. 

3.  Logacedic  Dipody  {two  feet) :  this  may  be  considered  a  sAort 
Pherecratic. 

Note.  —  Irrational  measures  are  those  in  which  the  syllables  do  not 
correspond  strictly  to  the  normal  ratio  of  length  (see  355),  such  as  the 
Irrational  Spondee  and  the  Cyclic  Dactyl.  This  mixture  of  various  ratios 
of  length  gives  an  effect  approaching  that  of  prose :  hence  the  name 
Logacedic  (X6yos,  doiSif).  These  measures  originated  in  the  Greek  lyric 
poetry,  and  were  adopted  by  the  Romans.  All  the  Roman  lyric  metres 
not  belonging  to  the  regular  iambic,  trochaic,  dactylic,  or  Ionic  systems, 
were  constructed  on  the  basis  of  the  three  forms  given  above  :  viz.,  Logace- 
dic systems  consisting  respectively  of  four,  three,  or  two  feet  Those  of 
five  feet  (Pentapody)  are  to  be  regarded  as  composed  of  two  of  the  others. 

370.  Each  logacedic  form  contains  a  single  dactyl,^ 
which  may  be  either  in  the  first,  second,  or  third  place. 
The  verse  may  be  catalectic  or  acatalectic :  viz., 

1  Different  Greek  poets  adopted  fixed  types  in  regard  to  the  place  of  the  dactyls, 
and  so  a  large  number  of  verses  arose,  each  following  a  strict  law,  which  were  imi- 
tated by  the  Romans  as  existing  metres. 


Versification:  Logaoedic  Forms.  285 

Glyconic.  Pherecratic. 

\.-^Kj\-KJ     |_v^     |_(w)  ll^.w|_w     I -Mil 

ii.  _  w    I  -^  w  I  _  vy    I  _  (w)  II  _  vy    I  -v>  w  I  _  (w)  II 

iii.  _  v^    I  _  w    I  -v/  w  I  _  (w)  II  -w  ^  I  _  (w)  II 

Note. — The  shorter  Pherecratic  {dipody),  if  catalectic,  appears  a  simple 

Choriambus  ( w  w  | A)  >  and,  in  general,  the  effect  of  the  logaoedic 

forms  is  Choriambic.  In  fact,  they  were  so  regarded  by  the  later  Greek 
and  Latin  metricians,  and  these  metres  have  obtained  the  general  name  of 
Choriambic.  But  they  are  not  true  choriambic,  though  they  may  very 
likely  have  been  felt  to  be  such  by  the  composer,  who  imitated  the  forms 
without  much  thought  of  their  origin.  They  may  be  read  (scanned),  there- 
fore, on  that  principle.  But  it  is  better  to  read  them  as  logaoedic  measures ; 
and  that  course  is  followed  here  in  accordance  with  the  most  approved 
opinion  on  the  subject. 

371.  The  verses  constructed  upon  the  several  Logaoedic 
forms  or  models  are  the  following:  — 

1.  Glyconic  {Second  Glyconic,  catalectic)  :  — 
ll_.|-..|_w|_ll[»5|.-^.|p.|p-(orp7,| 

Romae  |  principis  |  urbijum  || 
In  English :  — 

"  Forms  more  real  than  living  man."  —  Shelley. 
Note.  —  In  this  and  most  of  the  succeeding  forms  the  first  foot  is  always 
irrational  in  Horace,  consisting  of  an  apparent  spondee  { >). 

2.  Aristophanic  {First  Pherecratic)  :  — 

ll-wwl_w[_v:.ll  •••  J  I  •  J  I  •51 

/    1^  /  II    /  I  I    /I 

temperat  |  ora  |  frenis.  —  Hor. 

Note.  —  It  is  very  likely  that  this  was  made  equal  in  time  to  the  pre- 
ceding by  protracting  the  last  two  syllables  :  thus, 

,1 -..!_. |_,_|,,. -5.  |p.||.-l|.7 

3.  Adonic  (First  Pherecratic,  shortened)  :  — 

II  ^  w  I  _  w  II  f  •  5  f  I  f  f  I 

Terruit  |  urbem.  —  Hor. 
Or  perhaps :  — 


"--l-l-AIIJ-^JIf    li' 


286  Prosody. 

4.  Pherecratic  (^Second  Pherecratic)  :  — 

ii_ei^.l^l.Aiif.|-^j|.-||»7| 

crds  dondberis  ha^do.  —  Nor. 

5.  Lesser  Asclepiadic   (Second  and  P'irst  Pherecratic,  both 
natalectic)  :  — 

II   _  >    I   -V>  ^   I   L_   II   -^  W   I   _  W   I    ^    A    II 

Madcends  atavis  ^dite  rdgibus.  —  Hor. 

6.  Greater  Asclepiadic   (the  same,  interposing  a  Logaoedic 
Dipody)  :  — 

II  _  >  I  ^  w  I  L_  II  -^  w  I  L_  II  -vy  w  I  -_  w  I  _  A  II 

tu  ne  quadsieris  —  scire  nefds  —  qu^m  mihi  qu^m  tibf.  —  //or. 

7.  Lesser  Sapphic  {Logaoedic  Pentapody,  with  dactyl  in  the 
third  place)  :  — 

ll_w|_>|-^v^|_w|l_|wAII 
fnteg^r  vitad  scelerisque  purus.  —  //or. 
Or  in  English  :  — 
"  Brilliant  hopes,  all  woven  in  gorgeous  tissues."  —  Longfellow, 

8.  Greater  Sapphic  {Third Glyconic j  First  Pherecratic):  — 

II  _  w  I  _  >   I  -w  w  1  L_  II  -w  W  I  _  w  I  l_  I  O  A   II 

t^  de6s  or6  Sybarin  ||  cur  properds  amdndo.  —  //or. 

9.  Lesser  Alcaic  {/^ogacedic  Tetrapody,  two  dactyls,  two  tro- 
chees) :  — 

II  -w  w  I  -w  v^  I  _  w  I  _  ^  II 

virginibiis  puerfsque  cdnto.  —  //or. 
In  English  (nearly)  :  — 
"  Blossom  by  blossom  the  Spring  begins."  —  Atalanta  in  Calydon, 

10.  Greater  Alcaic  (Logaoedic  Pentapody,  catalectic,  with  Ana- 
crusis, and  dactyl  in  the  third  place,  — compare  Z^jj^r^^r//^^): — 

ll^:_w|_>|-vy^l-v^l^AII 

just«/«  ^t  tendcem  propositi  virum.  —  I/or. 

Or,  in  English  :  — 

"  Of  calling  shapes,  and  beckoning  shadows  dire."—  Owwj,  207. 

Note.  —  Only  the  above  Logaoedic  forms  are  employed  by  Horace. 

11.  PHALiECiAN  {/.ogaoedic  Pentapody,  with  dactyl  in  the  second 

place) :  — 

II  ^>  |-^v>|-w|->v|l_|_  A  II 


Metres  of  Horace.  287 

quadnam  te  mala  mdns,  misdlli  Rdwidi, 
dgit  praecipit^w  in  meds  idmbds  ?  —  CatulL  xl. 
In  English  :  — 

"  Gorgeous  flowerets  in  the  sunlight  shining."  —  Longfellow. 
12.  Glyconic  Pherecratic  {Metrum  Satyricurn)  :  — 

II  _  W  I  -v>  ^  I  _  W  I  L_  II  _  w  I  -^  W  1  L_  I  _  A    II 

O  Coldnia  qude  cupis  ||  pdnte  liidere  Idngo.  —  CatulL  xvii. 
Metres  of  Horace. 

372.  The  Odes  of  Horace  include  nineteen  varieties 
of  stanza :  viz., 

1.  Alcaic,  consisting  of  two  Greater  Alcaics  (10),  one  Tro- 
chaic Dimeter  with  anacrusis,  and  one  Lesser  Alcaic  (9)  ^ :  as, 

]ustum  6t  tendcem  prdpositi  virum 
non  civ'ium  ^rdor  prdva  jubdntiiim 
non  vultus  instantis  tyrdnni 

mdnte  quatit  solidd  neque  Auster.  —  Od.  iii.  3. 

Note.  —  The  Alcaic  Strophe  was  a  special  favorite  with  Horace,  of 
whose  Odes  thirty-seven  are  in  this  form.2  It  is  sometimes  called  the 
Horatiati  Stanza.  The  verses  were  formerly  described  as,  i,  2,  spondee, 
bacchius,  two  dactyls ;  3.  spondee,  bacchius,  two  trochees ;  4.  two 
dactyls,  two  trochees. 

2.  Sapphic  {minor).,  consisting  of  three  Lesser  Sapphics  (7) 
and  one  Adonic  (3):    as, 

jdm  satis  tern's  nivis  dtque  dfrae 
grdndinis  misit  pater  dt  rubdnte 
ddxterd  sacrd.s  jaculdtus  drees 
tdrruit  urbem.  —  Od.  i.  2. 

Note.  —  The  Sapphic  Stanza  is  named  after  the  poetess  Sappho  of 
Lesbos,  and  was  a  great  favorite  with  the  ancients,  being  used  by 
Horace  in  twenty-five  Odes — more  frequently  than  any  other  except 
the  foregoing.  The  Lesser  Sapphic  verse  was  formerly  described  as 
consisting  of  a  Choriambus  preceded  by  a  trochaic  dipody  and  followed 
by  a  bacchius. 

1  The  figures  refer  to  the  foregoing  list  (371). 
'  See  the  List  below  (pp.  289-291 ). 


288  Prosody. 

3.  Sapphic  {major),  consisting  of  one  Aristophanic  (2)  and 
one  Greater  Sapphic  (8)  :   as, 

Lydia  die,  per  dmnes 
t€  de<5s  ord,  Sybarin  cur  properds  amdndo. —  Od.  i.  8. 

4.  AscLEPiADEAN  I.  {minor),  consisting  of  Lesser  Asclepiad- 
ics  (5)  :  as, 

dxegi  monumdntww  adre  perdnnids 

rdgalique  situ  —  pyramidww  dltius.  —  Od.  iii.  20. 

5.  AscLEPiADEAN  II.,  consisting  of  One  Glyconic  (i)  and  one 
Lesser  Asclepiadic  (5)  :  as, 

Ndvis  quad  tibi  crdditum 
ddbes  Virgilium,  —  finibus  Atticfs 

rdddas  fncolumdm,  precdr, 
dt  servds  animad  —  dimidium  mead.  —  Od.  i.  3. 

6.  ASCLEPIADEAN   III.,  Consisting  of  three  Lesser  Asclepia. 
dies  (5)  and  one  Glyconic  (i)  :  as, 

Quis  desiderid  sft  pudor  dut  modus 
tdm  cari  capitis  ?  —  pradcipe  liigubrds 
cdntus,  Mdlpomend,  — cui  liquiddm  patdr 
vdcem  cum  cythard  dedit.  —  Od.  i.  24. 

7.  ASCLEPIADEAN  IV.,  Consisting  of  two  Lesser  Asclepiadics 
(5),  one  Pherecratic  (4),  and  one  Glyconic  (i)  :  as, 

O  fons  Bdndusiad  spldndididr  vitrd, 
ddlci  digne  merd,  ndn  sine  fldribus, 

crds  dondberis  haddo 

cuf  frons  turgida  cdmibus.  —  Od.  iii.  13. 

8.  ASCLEPIADEAN  V.  {major),  consisting  of  Greater  Asclepia- 
dics (6)  :  as, 

tu  ne  quadsierfs  —  scfre  nefds  ! — quern  mihi,  qi5em  tibf 
ffnem  di  dederfnt  —  Leuconod  —  ndc  Babyldnids 
tdntarfs  numerds.  —  Od.  i.  11. 

9.  Alcmanian,  consisting  of  Dactylic  Hexameter  (362)  alter- 
nating with  Tetrameter  (364.  a). 

10.  Archilochian  I.,  consisting  of  Dactylic  Hexameter  alter- 
nating with  Trimeter  Catalectic  {Dactylic  Penthcmim^  see  364.  d). 


Metres  of  Horace,  289 

11.  Archilochian  IV.,  consisting  of  a  Greater  Archilochian 
{heptameter,  368.  i),  followed  by  Iambic  Trimeter  catalectic  (365. 
d).     The  stanza  consists  of  two  pairs  of  verses  :  as, 

sdlvitur  acris  hi^ms  gratd,  vice  ||  Vdris  dt  Favdni, 

trahuntque  siccas  machinae  carinas  ; 
do  neque  jam  stabulis  gauddt  pecus,  ||  dut  ardtor  igni, 

nee  prata  canis  albicant  pruinis.  —  Od.  i.  4. 

12.  Iambic  Trimeter  alone  (see  365). 

13.  Iambic  Strophe  (see  365.  a). 

14.  Dactylic  Hexameter  alternating  with  Iambic  Dimeter  :  as, 

n6x  erat,  €t  caeld  fulg^bat  luna  serdno 

intdr  minora  sidera, 
cum  tu,  mdgnorum  num^n  laesura  dedrum, 

in  vdrba  jurabds  mea.  —  Epod,  15. 

15.  Dactylic  Hexameter  with  Iambic  Trimeter  (365)  ;  as, 

dltera  jdm  teritur  bellis  civilibus  adtas, 

suis  et  ipsa  Rdma  viribus  ruit.  — Epod.  16. 

16.  Verse  of  Four  Lesser  Ionics  :  as, 

miserar«/«  est  |  neque  amori  |  dare  liidum  I  neque  dulci 
mala  vino  I  laver^  aut  exlanimari  I  metuentes. —  Od.  iii.  12. 

17.  Iamb.  trim.  (365);  Dact.  penthem.  (364.  d);  Iamb.  dim. :  as, 

Pecti  nihil  me  sicut  anted  juvat 
scribere  vdrsiculos  —  amdre  perculsum  gravi.  —  Epod.  1 1. 

18.  Dactylic  Hexameter  ;  Iambic  Dimeter  ;  Dactylic  Penthe- 
mim  (364.  b)  :  as, 

hdrrida  tdmpestas  caelum  contrixit,  et  imbres 
nivdsque  deduciint  Jovem  :  nunc  mare,  nunc  siliiae.  .  .  . 

Epod.  13. 

19.  Trochaic  Dimeter,  Iambic  Trimeter,  each  catalectic  (see 
367.  b). 

INDEX   TO   THE   METRES   OF    HORACE. 

Lib.  I. 

1.  Maecenas  atavis  :  4.  9.  Videsutalta:  i. 

2.  Jam  satis  terns:  2.  10.  Merciiri  facunde  nepos :  2. 

3.  Sic  te  diva:  5.  it.  Tu  ne  quaesieris  :  8. 

4.  Solvitur  acris  hiems :  11.                          12.  Quemvirum:  2. 

5.  Quis  multa  :  7.  13.  Cum  tu  Lydia  :  5. 

6.  Scriberis  Vario  :  6.  14.  O  navis  :  7. 

7.  Laudabunt  alii :  9.  15.  Pastor  cum  traheret :  6. 

8.  Lydia  die:  3.  16.  O  matre  pulcra :  i. 

19 


290 


Prosody. 


17. 

Velox  amoenum :  i. 

28. 

Te  maris :  9. 

18. 

Nullam  Vare:  8. 

29. 

Icci  beatis:  i. 

19. 

Mater  saeva :  5. 

30- 

0  Venus:  2. 

20. 

Vile  potabis  :  2. 

31- 

Quid  dedicatum :  1. 

21. 

Dianam  tenerae :  7. 

32. 

Poscimur :  2. 

22. 

Integer  vitae :  2. 

IZ- 

Albi  ne  doleas :  6. 

23- 

Vitas  hinnuleo :  7. 

34- 

Parcus  deorum :  1. 

24. 

Quis  desiderio :  6. 

35- 

Odiva:  I. 

35- 

Parcius  junctas :  2. 

36. 

Etthure:  5. 

26. 

Musis  amicus:  i. 

37. 

Nunc  est  bibendum  :  i 

27. 

Natis  in  usum:  i. 

38- 

Persicosodi:  2. 

Lib. 

IL 

• 

I. 

Motumex  Metdlo:  i. 

II. 

Quid  bellicosus :  i. 

2. 

NuUus  argento  :  2. 

12. 

Nolis  longa :  6. 

3- 

Aequam  memento  :  i. 

13- 

Hie  et  nefasto :  i. 

4- 

Ne  sit  ancillae  :  2. 

14. 

Eheu  fugaces :  i. 

5- 

Nondum  subacta:  1. 

15- 

Jam  pauca :  i. 

6. 

Septimi  Gades :  2. 

16. 

Otium  divos  :   i. 

7. 

0  saepe  mecum:  i. 

17. 

Cur  me  querelis  :  i. 

8. 

Ulla  si  juris  :  2. 

18. 

Non  ebur :   19. 

9. 

•  Non  semper  imbres  :  i. 

19. 

Bacchum  in  remotis  :  I. 

10. 

Rectius  vives  :  2. 

20. 

Non  usitata  :  i. 

Lib. 

in. 

I. 

Odi  profanum  :  i. 

16. 

Inclusam  Danaen :  6. 

2. 

Angustam  amice  :  i. 

17. 

Aeli  vetusto :  i. 

3- 

Justiim  et  tenacem  :  i. 

18. 

Faune  nympharum  :  2. 

4- 

Descende  caelo  :  i. 

19. 

Quantum  distet :  5. 

5- 

Caelo  tonantem :  i. 

20. 

Non  vides :  2. 

6. 

Delicta  majorum  :  i. 

21. 

0  nata  meaim  :  i. 

7. 

Quidfles:  7. 

22. 

Montium  custos :  2. 

8. 

Martiis  caelebs :  2. 

23- 

Caelo  supinas  :  i. 

9. 

Donee  gratus :  5. 

24. 

Intactis  opulentior :  5. 

10. 

Extremum  Tanain  :  6. 

25. 

Quo  me  Bacche  :  5. 

II. 

Mercuri  nam  te  :  2. 

26. 

Vixi  puellis :  i. 

12. 

Miserarum  est :  16. 

27. 

Impios  parrae :  2. 

13- 

0  fons  Bandusiae :  7. 

28. 

Fes  to  quid  :  5. 

14. 

Herculis  ritu  :  2. 

29. 

Tyrrhena  regum :  i. 

«5 

Uxor  pauperis:  5. 

30- 

Exegi  monumentum :  4 

Lib. 

IV. 

I. 

Intennissa  Venus  :  5. 

9- 

Ne  forte  credas :  i. 

2. 

Pindarum  quisquis :  2. 

10. 

0  crudelis  adhuc :  8. 

3- 

Quem  tu  Melpomene :  5. 

II. 

Est  mihi  nonum  :  2. 

4- 

Qualem  ministrum :  i. 

12. 

Jam  Areris  comites  :  6. 

5- 

Divis  orte  bonus  :  6. 

13- 

AudivSre  Lyce :  7. 

6. 

Dive  quem  proles :  2. 

14. 

Qua  cura  patrum  :  i. 

7. 

Diffuger6re  nives  :  10. 

15- 

Phoebus  volentem :  1. 

8. 

Donarem  pateras :  4. 

Carmtn  Saccular ei  2. 

Metres  of  Horace.  291 

Epodes. 


I. 

Ibis  liburnis :  13. 

ID. 

Mala  soluta :  13. 

2. 

Beatus  ille  :  13. 

II. 

Pecti  nihil :   17. 

3- 

Parentis  olim  :  13. 

12. 

Quid  tibi  vis  ;  9. 

4- 

Lupis  et  agnis  :  1-3. 

n- 

Horrida  tempestas 

5- 

At  0  deorum  :  13. 

14. 

Mollis  inertia :  14. 

6. 

Quid  immerentes  :   13. 

15- 

Nox  erat :  14. 

7 

Quo  quo  scelesti :   13. 

16. 

Altera  jam  :  15. 

8. 

Rogare  longo :   13. 

17. 

Jam  jam  efficaci : 

9- 

Quando  repostum  :  13. 

373.  Other  lyric  poets  use  other  combinations  of  the 
above-mentioned  verses. 

a.  Glyconics  with  one  Pherecratic  (both  imperfect)  :  as, 

DTalnae  sumus  |  in  fide 
puell  W  et  puen  1  integrl : 
Dial  nam,  puer/  I  TntegrT 

puelllaeque  calnalmus.  — Catull.  34. 

b.  Sapphics^  in  series  of  single  lines,  closing  with  zxs.  Adonic : 
as, 

An  ma(gTs  diln  tremu|ere  |  Manes 
■  Herculk/^  ?  et  vTlsum  canis  I  Tnfelrorum 
fugit  I  abrupltis  treplldus  caltenis  ? 
fallllmur:  laelte  venit  I  ecce  |  vultu, 
quern  tullit  Poelas;  hume  I  risque  I  tela 
gestat  I  et  noitas  popullTs  phalretras 

Herculis  I  heres.  —  Sen.  Here.  (Et.  1600-6. 

c.  Sapphics  followed  by  Glyconics,  of  indefinite  number  (id. 
Here.  Fur.  830-874,  875-894). 

Miscellaneous. 

374.  Other  measures  occur  in  various  styles  of  poetry  : 
viz :  — 

a.  Anap^STIC  verses  of  various  lengths  are  found  in  dramatic 
poetry.  The  spondee,  dactyl,  or  proceleusmatic  may  be  substituted 
for  the  anapaest :  as, 

hic  homost  I  orar^um  homllnum  praelclpuos 

voluptaitlbus  gauldzTsqu^  anitepotens. 

tta  comlmoda  quae  Icupl^  evenlunt, 

quod  ago  I  subit,  adlsecue  I  sequltur : 

Tta  gauldmm  supipedltat.  —  Plaut.   Trin.  1115-19. 


292  Prosody. 

b.  Bacchiac  verses  (five-timed)  occur  in  dramatic  poets,  —  very 
rarely  in  Terence,  more  commonly  in  Plautus  —  either  in  verses  of 
two  feet  (Dimeter)  or  of  four  (Tetrameter).  They  are  treated 
very  freely,  as  are  all  measures  in  early  Latin.  The  long  syllables 
may  be  resolved,  or  the  molossus  (three  longs)  substituted  :  as, 

multas  res  |  slmltw  in  |  m€6  c6r|dS  v5rso, 
multum  In  c5|gTtand5  |  d61or^/«  Tnldtpiscor 
egomet  me  |  cog^  et  ma|cer^  et  delfatigo  ; 
maglster  I  mlh/exerlcltor  anl|mus  nunc  est. 

Plaut.   Trin.  223-226. 

c.  Cretic  measures  occur  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Bacchiac, 
with  the  same  substitutions.   The  last  foot  is  usually  incomplete  :  as, 

amor  amilcus  mthi  |  ne  fuas  |  unquam. 

his  eg5  I  de  artTbus  I  gratlam  |  facto. 

nil  eg^  Isltos  moror  I  faeceos  I  mores.  — id.  267,  293,  297. 

d.  Saturnian  Verse.  —  In  early  Latin  is  found  a  rude  form 
of  verse,  not  like  the  others  borrowed  from  the  Greek.  The 
rhythm  is  Limbic  tetrameter  (or  Trochaic  with  Anacrusis),  from 
the  Greek ;  but  the  Arsis  is  often  syncopated,  especially  in  the 
middle  and  end  of  the  verses  :  as, 

da  I  bunt  ma  Hum  Meitdlllf  — 1|  Na^vild  poldtae. 

Early  Prosody. 

375.  The  prosody  of  the  earlier  Latin  poets  differs  in 
several  respects  from  that  of  the  later.^ 

a.  At  the  end  of  words  s  was  only  feebly  sounded,  so  that  it 
does  not  make  position  with  a  following  consonant,  and  is  sometimes 
cut  off  before  a  vowel.  This  usage  continued  in  all  poets  till  Cic- 
ero's time. 

b.  The  last  syllable  of  any  word  of  two  syllables  may  be  made 
short,  if  the  first  is  short.  (This  effect  remained  in  a  few  words 
like  putd^  cav^,  valtf,  vid^.)     Thus  — 

&b€st  {Cist.  ii.   I,  12);  Spiid  test  {Trin.   196);  s6r5r  dlctast 
{Enn.  157)  ;  bdnis  {Stick.  99)  ;  d6mr  d€aeque  {Pseud.  37)  ;   | 
d6mT  {Mil.  194).  ^ 

'  Before  the  language  was  used  in  literature,  it  had  become  very  much  changed 
by  the  loss  of  final  consonants  and  shortening  of  final  syllables  under  the  influence     j 
of  accent ;  which  was  originally  free  in  its  position,  but  in  Latin  became  limited  to     | 
the  penult  and  antepenult.     This  tendency  was  arrested  by  the  study  of  grammar     \ 
and  by  literature,  but  shows  itself  again  in  the  Romance  languages.      In  many 
this  change  was  still  in  progress  in  the  time  of  the  early  poets. 


Early  Prosody.  293 

c.  The  same  effect  is  produced  when  a  short  monosyllable  pre- 
cedes a  long  syllable  :  as, 

Id  est  profecto  {Merc.  372)  ;  ertt  et  \Voi  exoptatum  {Mil.  loi  i)  ; 
si  o^idietn  hercle  {Asin.  414)  ;  quid  est  si  hoc  {Andria,  237). 

d.  In  a  few  isolated  words  position  is  often  disregarded.  Such 
are  ille,  tste,  inde,  Unde,  nempe,  esse  (?).  (Scholars  are  not  yet 
agreed  upon  the  principle  in  this  irregularity,  or  its  extent.) 
Thus  :  —  ecquTs  his  in  aedibust  {Bacch.  581.) 

e.  In  some  cases  the  accent  seems  to  shorten  a  syllable  preced- 
ing it  in  a  word  of  more  than  three  syllables  :  as,  in  sen^ctuti, 
Syrdcusae. 

f.  At  the  beginning  of  a  verse,  many  syllables  long  by  position 
stand  for  short  ones  :  as, 

Jdne  tu  {Pseud.  442)  ;  estne  consimilis  {Epid.  v.  I.  18). 

g.  The  original  long  quantity  of  many  final  syllables  is  retained. 
Thus : — 

1.  Final  a  of  the  first  declension  is  often  long  :  as, 

ne  epistula  quid^;;^  ulla  sit  in  addibus  {Asin.  762). 

2.  Final  a  of  the  neuter  plural  is  sometimes  long  (though  there 
seems  no  etymological  reason  for  it)  :  as, 

nunc  et  amico  |  prdsperab*?  et  |  gdnio  meo  mul  |  ta  bona  faciam 
{Pers.  263) 

3.  The  ending  -or  is  retained  long  in  nouns  with  long  stem 
(either  with  original  r  or  original  s)  :   as, 

mddo  quom  dict^  in  m^  ingerebas  odium  non  uxor  eram  {As.  927.) 
fta  mz  in  pector^  dtque  corde,  facit  amor  inc^ndium  {Merc.  500). 
dtque  quanto  nox  fuisti  longior  hoc  proxuma  {Ainph.  548). 

4.  The  termination  es  (itis)  is  sometimes  retained  long :  as  in 
miles.,  superstes. 

5.  All  verb-endings  in  r,  s,  and  t,  may  be  retained  long,  where 
the  vowel  is  elsewhere  long  in  inflection  :  as, 

regredior  audisse  me  (Capt.  1023)  ;  atqu^  ut  qui  fueris  et  qui  nunc 
(id.  248)  ;  me  nominat  haec  [Epid.  iv.  i,  8)  ;  faciat  ut  semper  (Poen. 
ii.  42);  infuscabat,  amabo  (Cretics,  Cist.  i.  21);  qui  amet  [Merc. 
1021)  ;  ut  fit  in  bello  capitur  alter  filius  {Capt.  25) ;  tibi  sit  ad  me 
revisas  (  True.  ii.  4,  79). 

h.  The  hiatus  is  allowed  very  freely,  especially  at  a  pause  in  the 
sense,  or  when  there  is  a  change  of  the  speaker.  (The  extent  of 
this  license  is  still  a  question  among  scholars  ;  but  in  the  present 
state  of  texts  it  must  sometimes  be  allowed.) 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


1.  — Beckoning  of  Time. 

Note.  —  The  Year  was  dated,  in  earlier  times,  by  the  names  of  the 
Consuls ;  but  was  afterwards  reckoned  from  the  building  of  the  City 
(at)  urbe  conditd,  anno  urbis  condita),  the  date  of  which  was  assigned  by 
Varro  to  a  period  corresponding  with  B.C.  753.  In  order,  therefore,  to 
reduce  Roman  dates  to  those  of  the  Christian  era,  the  year  of  the  city  is 
to  be  subtracted  from  754 :  e.g.  a.u.c.  691  (the  year  of  Cicero's  consulship) 
=  B.C.  63. 

Before  Caesar's  reform  of  the  Calendar  (B.C.  46),  the  Roman  year 
consisted  of  355  days :  March,  May,  Quintilis  (July),  and  October 
having  each  31  days ;  February  having  28,  and  each  of  the  remainder 
29;  with  an  Intercalary  month,  on  alternate  years,  inserted  after  Feb- 
ruary 23,  at  the  discretion  of  the  Pontifices.  The  "Julian  year,"  by 
the  reformed  calendar,  had  365  days,  divided  as  at  present.  Every 
fourth  year  the  24th  of  February  (vi.  kal.  Mart.)  was  counted  twice, 
giving  29  days  to  that  month  :  hence  the  year  was  called  Bissextilis. 
The  month  Quintilis  received  the  name  jfttltus  (July),  in  honor  of  Julius 
Caesar  ;  and  Sextilis  of  Augtistus  (August),  in  honor  of  his  successor. 
The  Julian  year  (see  below)  remained  unchanged  till  the  adoption  of  the 
Gregorian  Calendar  (a.d.  1582),  which  omits  leap-year  once  in  every 
century. 

376.  Dates,  according  to  the  Roman  Calendar,  are 
reckoned  as  follows  :  — 

a.  The  first  day  of  the  month  was  called  Kalendae  {Calends\ 
from  calare,  to  call^  —  that  being  the  day  on  which  the  pontiffs 
publicly  announced  the  New  Moon  in  the  Comitia  Calata,  which 
which  they  did,  originally,  from  actual  observation. 

b.  Sixteen  days  before  the  Calends,  —  that  is,  on  iht  fifteenth 
day  of  March,  May,  July,  and  October,  but  the  thirteenth  of  the 
other  months,  —  were  the  Idua  {Ides),  the  day  of  Full  Moon. 

c.  Eight  days  (the  ninth  by  the  Roman  reckoning)  before  the 
Ides  —  that  is,  on  the  seventh  day  of  March,  May,  July,  and 
October,  but  the  fifth  of  the  other  months  —  were  the  Nonae 
(Nones  or  ninths). 


Reckoning  of  Time. 


295 


d.  From  the  three  points  thus  determined  the  days  of  the  month 
were  reckoned  backwards  (the  point  of  departure  being,  by  Roman 
custom,  counted  in  the  reckoning),  giving  the  following  rule  for 
determining  the  date  :  — 

If  the  given  date  be  Calends,  add  two  to  the  number  of  days  in 
the  month  preceding, — if  Nones  or  Ides,  add  one  to  that  of  the 
day  on  which  they  fall,  —  and  from  the  number  thus  ascertained 
subtract  the  given  date  :  —  thus, 

viii.  Kal.  Feb.  (33— 8)=  Jan.  25. 

iv.  Non.  Mar.  (8 — 4)  =  Mar.  4. 

iv.  Id.  Sept.  (14—4)  ==  Sept.  10. 

e.  The  days  of  the  Roman  month  by  the  Julian  Calendar,  as 
thus  ascertained,  are  given  in  the  following  Table  :  — 


January. 

February. 

March. 

April. 

I.  Kal.  Jan. 

Kal 

Feb. 

Kal 

Martin 

Kal 

Apriles 

2.  IV.  Non.  Jan. 

IV.    Non.  Feb. 

VI.  Non.  Mart. 

IV.  Non.  Apr. 

3-  I"-      .,        ,. 

III. 

»        J 

> 

V. 

M          » 

III. 

»i        >» 

4.  priA  „        „ 

prid. 

>>        > 

IV. 

i»        » 

prid. 

>>        » 

J.  Non.  Jan. 

Non 

Feb. 

III. 

>>        » 

NoN 

Apriles 

6.  VIII.  Id.  Jan. 

VIII. 

Id.  Feb. 

prid. 

>»        >> 

VIII. 

Id.  Apr. 

7.  VII.     „       „ 

VII. 

I>           M 

NON 

.  Martin 

VII. 

)>           M 

8.  VI.      „      „ 

VI. 

>»           >» 

VIII. 

Id.  Mart. 

VI. 

>»           » 

9-  V.       „      „ 

V. 

»           »> 

VII. 

»      >> 

V. 

»           » 

10.  IV.      „       „ 

IV. 

»           » 

VI. 

»      >> 

IV. 

M           M 

II.  III.     „      „ 

III. 

M           M 

V. 

»      >» 

III. 

,,           „ 

12.  prid.  „      „ 

prid. 

M           » 

IV. 

»      »» 

prid. 

„           „ 

13.  IdusJan. 

Idus 

Feb. 

III. 

M           » 

Idus 

Apriles. 

14.  XIX.  Kal.  Feb. 

XVI. 

Kal.  Martias 

prid. 

J)           »> 

XVIII 

Kal.  Maias 

15.   XVIII.    „          „ 

XV. 

,, 

>> 

Idus  Martin 

XVII. 

>>        >» 

16.   XVII.    „          „ 

XIV. 

,, 

XVII 

Kal.  Aprilis. 

XVI. 

17.   XVI.      „          „ 

XIII. 

„ 

„ 

XVI. 

>»          » 

XV. 

>>               5> 

18.   XV.       „         „ 

XII. 

»> 

„ 

XV. 

»j          » 

XIV. 

>>               »> 

19.   XIV.      „          „ 

XI. 

„ 

„ 

XIV. 

>>          >» 

XIII. 

»               J» 

20.    XIII.      „           „ 

X. 

„ 

„ 

XIII. 

>i          » 

XII. 

>»               »> 

21.    XII.        „           „ 

IX. 

„ 

„ 

XII. 

>>          >» 

XI. 

»                >1 

22.    XI.           „            „ 

VIII. 

„ 

„ 

XI. 

M                » 

X. 

>»              M 

23.  X.          „          „ 

VII. 

„ 

„ 

X. 

«>                » 

IX. 

>>              »» 

24.  IX.        „         „ 

VI. 

„ 

„ 

IX. 

»                >) 

VIII. 

»              >» 

25.    VIII.      „           „ 

V. 

„ 

'J 

VIII. 

»                >» 

VII. 

>»              >» 

26.    VII.        „           „ 

IV. 

„ 

VII. 

l>                )> 

VI. 

l>              >> 

27.    VI.           „           „ 

III. 

„ 

M 

VI. 

>»                » 

V. 

»»              M 

28.   V.          „         „ 

prid. 

„ 

„ 

V. 

»J                J> 

IV. 

»              »> 

29.    IV.          „           „ 

[prid. 

Kal.  Mart. 

IV. 

»>                >• 

III. 

M              >> 

30.    III.         „           „ 

in  leap-year, 

the 

III. 

»                » 

prid. 

»              >» 

31.    prid.,,       „ 

vi.  Kal.  (24th)  being 

prid. 

>>                >» 

So  June,  Sept.,  Nov. 

(So  Aug.,  Dec.) 

counted  twice.] 

(So  May,  July,  Oct.) 

Note.  —  Observe  that  a  date  before  the  Julian  Reform  (b.c.  46)  is  to 
be  found  not  by  the  above,  but  by  taking  the  earlier  reckoning  of  the 
number  of  days  in  the  month. 


296  Miscellaneous, 

2.  Measures  of  Value. 

377.  The  Money  of  the  Romans  was  in  early  times  wholly  of 
copper,  the  unit  being  the  As.  This  was  nominally  a  pound,  but 
actually  somewhat  less,  in  weight,  and  was  divided  into  twelve 
unciae.  In  the  third  century  B.C.  the  As  was  reduced  by  degrees 
to  one-twelfth  of  its  original  value.  At  the  same  time  silver  coins 
were  introduced  ;  the  Denarius  =  10  y4j"j"^j,  and  the  Sestertius  or 
sesterce  {seinis-tertius^  or  half-third^  represented  by  IIS  or  HS== 
duo  et  sefnis)  ==  2}i  Asses. 

378.  The  Sestertius,  being  probably  introduced  at  a  time  when 
it  was  equal  in  value  to  the  original  as,  came  to  be  used  as  the  unit 
of  value  :  hence  nummus,  coin,  was  used  as  equivalent  to  Sester- 
tius. Afterwards,  by  reductions  in  the  standard,  four  asses 
became  equal  to  a  sesterce.  Gold  was  introduced  later,  the  aureus 
being  equal  to  100  sesterces.  The  value  of  these  coins  is  seen  in 
the  following  Table  :  — 

2%  asses  =  I  sestertius  or  nummus  (hs),  value  nearly  5  cents. 
10     asses  or  4  sestertii  =  i  denarius  .     .     .      „         »     20   „ 
1000     sestertii  =  i  sestertium „         ,,  $50.00. 

379.  The  Sestertium  (probably  the  genitive  plural  of  sestertius) 
was  a  sum  of  money,  not  a  coin  ;  the  word  is  inflected  regularly 
as  a  neuter  noun:  thus,  tria  sestertia  =  %i $0.00.  When  com- 
bined with  a  numeral  adverb,  hundreds  of  thousands  {centeua 
miilia)  is  to  be  understood  :  thus  decies  sestertium  (decies  HS)  = 
$50,000.  In  the  statement  of  large  sums  the  noun  is  often 
omitted  :  thus  sexagies  (Rose.  Am.  2)  signifies,  sexagies  [centena 
millia  ]  sestertium  (6,000,000  sesterces)  =$300,000  (nearly). 

380.  In  the  statement  of  sums  of  money  in  cipher,  a  line  above 
the  number  indicates  thousands  ;  lines  at  the  sides  also,  hundred- 
thousands.  Thus  HS.  DC.  =  600  sestertii;  hs.  dc.  =  600,000  j<?j- 
tertii,  or  600  sestertia;  H.s.  |dc|  =60,000,000  sestertii. 

381.  The  Roman  Measures  of  Length  are  the  following  :  — 

12  uncije  [inches  )  =  i  Roman  Foot  {pes:  11.65  English  inches). 
V/z  Feet  =  i  Cubit.  —  2)i  Feet  =  i  Degree  or  Step  {gradus). 
5  Feet  =  I  Pace  {passus).  —  1000  Paces  {tnille passuum)  —  i  Mile. 

The  Roman  mile  was  equal  to  4850  English  feet.  The  Jugerum^ 
or  unit  of  measure  of  land,  was  an  area  of  240  (Roman)  feet  long 
and  1.^0  broifl ;  a  little  less  than  ^  of  an  English  acre 


Miscellaneous. 


297 


382.  The  Measures  of  Weight  are  — 

12  unciae  {ounces)  =  one  pound  {libra,  about  ^  lb.  avoirdupois) 

Fractional  parts  (weight  or  coin)  are  — 

1.  {^),uncm;  5.  {-^i) ,  quincunx ; 

2.  {\),  sextans;  6.  {j) ,  semissis ; 

3.  {\),  quadrans ;  7.  {-h) ,  septunx ; 

4.  (^),triens;  8.  (§),  ^^jj/jj- 
The  Talent  was  a  Greek  weight  =  60  //^r^. 

383.  The  Measures  of  Capacity  are  — 

12  cyathi    =  i  sextarius  (nearly  a  pint). 
16  sextaril  =  i  modius  (peck). 

6  sextarii  =  i  congius  (3  quarts,  liquid  measure) 

8  congii    =  i  amphora  (6  gallons). 


9.  (I),  dodrans; 

10.  (f),  dextans; 

11.  (H),  deunx; 

12.  As.i 


384.     ABBREVIATIONS. 


A.,  ahsol^vOy  antiquo. 

A.  U.,  rt?m<7  urbis. 

A.  u.  C,  ^3  wr<^^  conditd. 

C,  condemno,  comitialis.. 
COS.,  consul  {consule). 
coss.,  consules  {consulibus). 
I).,  divus. 

D.  D.,  ^(!7«^  rt'.ffl?'//. 

D.  D.  D.,  fl^a/",  ^/m/,  dedicat. 

des.,  designatus. 

D.  M.,  ^»  manes. 

eq.  Rom.,  ^^w^j-  Romanus. 

Y.,Jilius,fastus. 

ictus,  jurisconsultus. 

Id.,  /^z^j. 

imp.,  imperator. 

J.  O.  M.,  7(^7^/  optima  maxima. 

K.,  Kal.,  Kalendce. 

N.,  w^/^j-,  nefastus. 

N.  L.,  «c«  liquet. 


P.  C,  patres  conscripti. 

^\.,plebis. 

pent,  vcizx.f  pontifex  maximus. 

pop.,  populus. 

P.  R.,  populus  Romanus. 

pr.,  prcetor. 

proc. ,  proconsul. 

Q.  B.  F.  F.  Q.  s.,  ^M^fl^  bonum  felix 

faustumque  sit. 
Quir.,  Quirites. 
resp.,  respublica,  respondet. 
S.,  salutem,  sacrum,  senatus. 
s.  C,  senatus  consultum. 
S.  D.  P.,  salutem  dicit plurimam. 
S.  P.  Q.  R.,  Senatus  Populusque  Ro^ 

manus. 
S.  V.  B.    E.  E.  v.,  J/  t'fl:/<f.f  ^^«^  ^j/,   ^^* 

pi.  tr.,  tribunus plebis. 
U.  (u.  R.),  utirogas. 


Originally  a  pound  of  copper  ;  afterwards  worth  about  two  cents. 


GLOSSARY 

OF   rERMS  USED   IN   GRAMMAR,   RHETORIC,  AND    PROSODY. 


385.    I.   Grammatical  Figures. 

Anacoluthon :  a  change   of  construction   in  the   same  sentence, 

leaving  the  first  part  broken  or  unfinished. 
Anastrophe :  inversion  of  the  usual  order  of  words. 
Apodosis:  the  conclusion  of  a  conditional  sentence  (see  Protasis). 
Archais7n  :  an  adoption  of  old  or  obsolete  forms. 
Asyndeton  :  omission  of  conjunctions  (208.  b). 
Barbarism  :  adoption  of  foreign  or  unauthorized  forms. 
Brachylogy :  brevity  of  expression. 
Crasis :  contraction  of  two  vowels  into  one  (10.  c). 
Ellipsis :  omission  of  a  word  or  words  necessary  to  complete  the 

sense  (177.  n.). 
Enallage :  substitution  of  one  word  or  form  for  another. 
Epenthesis :  insertion  of  a  letter  or  syllable  (11.  c). 
Hellenism :  use  of  Greek  forms  or  constructions. 
Hendiadys :  the  use  of  two  nouns,  with  conjunction,  instead  of  a 

single  modified  noun. 
Hypallage :  interchange  of  constructions. 
Hysteron  proteron  :  reversing  the  natural  order. 
Metathesis  :  transposition  of  letters  in  a  word  (11.  //). 
Paragoge :  adding  a  letter  or  letters  to  the  end  of  a  word. 
Parenthesis  :  insertion  of  a  phrase  interrupting  the  construction. 
Periphrasis  ;  a  roundabout  way  of  expression. 
Pleonasm :  the  use  of  needless  words. 
Prolepsis :  the  use  of  a  word  in  the  clause  preceding  its  normal 

place  (anticipation). 
Protasis:  a  clause  introduced  by  a  conditional  expression  {if,  when, 

whoever),  leading  to  a  conclusion  called  the  Apodosis  (304). 
Syncope :  omission  of   a  letter  or  syllable  from  the  middle  of  a 

word  (11.  b). 
Synesis :  agreement  of  words  according  to  the  sense,  and  not  the 

grammatical  form  (182). 
Tmesis :  the  separation  of  the  two  parts  of  a  compound  word  by 

other  words  {cutting). 
Zeugma :  the  use  of  a  verb  with  two  different  words,  to  only  one 

of  which  it  strictly  applies  {yoking). 


Glossary.  299 


386.     II.    Rhetorical  Figures. 

Allegory  :  a  narrative  in  which  names  and  things  are  used  as  meta- 
phors to  enforce  some  moral  truth,  and  not  in  their  natural 
sense. 

Alliteration  :  using  several  words  that  begin  with   ooe  consonant. 

Analogy  :  argument  from  resemblances. 

Anaphora:  repeating  a  word  at  the  beginning  of  successive 
clauses  (344./"). 

Antithesis :  opposition,  or  contrast  of  parts  (for  emphasis  :  344). 

Antonomasia  :  use  of  a  proper  for  a  common  noun,  or  the  reverse. 

Aposiopesis :  an  abrupt  pause  for  rhetorical  effect. 

Catachresis  \  a  harsh  metaphor  (misuse  of  words). 

Chiasmus :  reversing  the  order  of  words  in  corresponding  pairs  ov 
phrases  (344- /)• 

Climax:  a  gradual  increase  of  emphasis,  or  enlargement  of 
meaning. 

Euphemism :  the  mild  expression  of  a  painful  or  repulsive  idea. 

Euphony :  the  choice  of  words  for  their  agreeable  sound. 

HyPerbaton  :  violation  of  the  usual  order  of  words. 

Hyperbole :  exaggeration  for  rhetorical  effect. 

Irony :  the  use  of  words  which  naturally  convey  a  sense  contrary 
to  what  is  meant. 

Litotes :  the  affirming  of  a  thing  by  denying  its  contrary  (209.  c). 

Metaphor :  the  figurative  use  of  words,  indicating  an  object  by 
some  resemblance  {transfer'). 

Metony?ny  :  using  the  name  of  one  thing  to  indicate  some  kindred 
thing. 

Oxymoron  :  using  contradictory  words  in  the  same  phrase. 
Paronomasia :  using  words  of  like  sound. 

Synecdoche:  using  the  name  of  a  part  for  the  whole,  or  the 
reverse. 

387.    III.   Terms  of  Prosody. 

Acatalectic:  complete,  as  a  series  or  sequence  of  feet  (359.  a). 
Anaclasis :    breaking  up    of    rhythm    by    substituting    different 

measures. 
Anacrusis :  changing  the  character  of  the  rhythm  by  setting  off  an 

unaccented  syllable  or  syllables  (355.  g). 
Antistrophe :  a  series  of  verses  corresponding  to  one  which  has 

gone  before  {strophe). 
Arsis  :  the  unaccented  part  of  a  foot  (358). 
Basis :  a  single  foot  preceding  the  regular  movement  of  a  verse. 


300  Glossary, 

Ccesura:  the  endin'r  of  a  word  within  a  measure  (358.  b). 
Catalexis :  loss  of  a  fi/ial  syllable  (or  syllables)  making  the  series 

catalectic  (incomplete,  359.  a). 
Contraction  :  using  one  long  syllable  for  two  short  (357). 
Correption  :  shortening  of  a  long  syllable,  for  symmetry. 
Diceresis :  the  coincidence  of  the  end  of  a  foot  with  that  of  a  word 

(358.  c). 
Dialysis :  the  use  of  j  and  v  as  vowels  {silud  =  silva :  347.  d,  r). 
Diastole :  making  a  short  syllable  long  by  emphasizing  it  (359./"). 
Dipody,  Dimeter :  consisting  of  two  like  feet,  or  measures. 
Distich :  a  system  or  series  of  two  verses. 
Elision :  the  combining  of  a  final  with  a  following  initial  vowel 

(359-  c\ 
Heptaineter  :  consisting  of  seven  feet. 

Hexapody^  Hexajneter :  consisting  of  six  feet,  or  measures. 
Hiatus  :  the  meeting  of  two  vowels  without  contraction  or  elision 

(359-  ^)- 
Ictus:  the  metrical  accent  (358.  a). 

Irrational:  not  conforming  strictly  to  the  unit  of  time  (356,  Note). 
Logaoedic :  varying  in  rhythm,  making  the  effect  resemble  prose 

(369). 
Manometer :  consisting  of  a  single  measure. 
Mora:  the  unit  of  time  =  one  short  syllable  (355.  a\ 
Pentapody,  Pentajneter :  consisting  of  five  feet,  or  measures. 
Penthemimeris  :  consisting  of  five  half-feet. 
Protraction:   extension  of  a  syllable  beyond  its  normal  length 

(355-  c). 
Resolution :  using  two  short  syllables  for  one  long  (357). 
Strophe :  a  series  of  verses  making  a  recognized  metrical  wholp 

{staftza),  which  may  be  indefinitely  repeated. 
Synceresis :  i  and  u  becoming  consonants  before  a  vowel. 
Synapheia:  elision  between  two  verses  (359.  c^  R.). 
Synizesis :  combining  two  vowels  in  one  syllable  (347.  c). 
Syncope :  loss  of  a  short  vowel. 
Systole :  shortening  a  syllable  regularly  long. 
Tetrapody,  Tetrameter-,  consisting  of  four  feet,  or  measures. 
Tetrastich  :  a  system  of  four  verses. 
Thesis :  the  accented  part  of  a  foot  (358). 
Tripody,  Trimeter :  consisting  of  three  feet,  or  measures. 
Tristich :  a  system  of  three  verses. 


APPENDIX. 


Latin  was  originany  the  language  of  the  plain  of  Latium,  lying 
south  of  the  Tiber,  the  first  territory  occupied  and  governed  by  the 
Romans.  This  language,  together  with  the  Greek,  Sanskrit,  Zend 
(Old  Persian),  the  Sclavonic  and  Teutonic  families,  and  the  Celtic, 
are  shown  by  comparative  philology  to  be  offshoots  of  a  common 
stock,  a  language  once  spoken  by  a  people  somewhere  in  the  in- 
terior of  Asia,  whence  the  different  branches,  by  successive  migra- 
tions, peopled  Europe  and  Southern  Asia. 

The  name  Indo-European  (or  Aryan)  is  given  to  the  whole 
group  of  languages,  as  well  as  to  the  original  language  from  which 
the  branches  sprang.  By  an  extended  comparison  of  the  cor- 
responding roots,  stems,  and  forms,  as  they  appear  in  the  different 
branches,  the  original  ("  Indo-European  ")  root,  stem,  or  form  can 
in  very  many  cases  be  determined  ;  and  this  is  used  as  a  model, 
or  type,  to  which  the  variations  may  be  referred.  A  few  of  these 
forms  are  given  in  the  grammar  for  comparison  (see,  especially, 
p.  69).     A  few  are  here  added  for  further  illustration  :  — 

,    I.  Case  Forms  (Stem  yak,  voice). 


Indo-Eur- 

Sansk. 

Greek. 

Latin. 

Sing.  Nom. 

vaks 

vaks 

H 

VOX 

Gen. 

vakaa 

vachas 

}yK6% 

vocis 

Dat. 

vakai 

vache 

drrl 

voci 

Ace. 

vakam 

vacham 

Sira 

vocem 

Abl. 

vakat 

vachas 

(gen.  or  dat.) 

voce(d) 

Loc. 

vaki 

vachi 

(dat.) 

(dat.) 

Instr. 

vak3 

vacha 

(dat.) 

(abl.) 

Plur.  Nom. 

vakaa 

vachas 

6Tr€S 

voces 

Gen. 

vakam 

vacham 

oir&y 

vocum 

Dat. 

vakbhyams 

vagbhyas 

ar^r 

vocibus 

Ace. 

vakams 

vachas 

6'iras 

voces 

Abl. 

vakbhyams 

(as  dat.) 

(gen.  or  dat.) 

vocibus 

Loc. 

vaksvas 

vaksu 

(dat.) 

(dat.) 

Instr. 

vakbhis 

vagbhis 

(dat.) 

(abl.) 

(For  Verb- Forms,  see  p.  67.) 


302 


Appendix, 


2.  Cardinal  Numbers. 


IndoEur. 

1  ? 

2  dva 

3  tri 

4  kvatvar 

5  kvankva 

6  ksvaks 

7  saptam 

8  aktam 

9  navam 
10  dakam 

12  dvadakam 

13  tridakam 
20  dvidakanta 
30  tridakanta 

100  kantam 


Sanskr. 

[ekal 
dva 

tri 

chatur 

panchan 

shash 

saptan 

ashtun 

navan 

dasan 

dva-dasan 

trayo-dasan 

vinsati 

trinsati 

9atam 


Greek. 

Uo 
rpe'is 
rerrapfs 
TreVre 

H 

fvrd 

OKTfi) 

ivvta 

SfKa 

SuSfKa 

rpiaKaiSfKa 

ftKoai 

rpiaKovra 

knardv 


Father. 

Mother. 

Father-in-law. 

Daughter-in-law 

Brother. 

Sister. 

Master. 

House. 

Seat. 

Year. 

Field. 

Oxy  Cow. 

Sheep  (E7ve). 

Swine  (Soiv). 

Yoke. 

fVagon. 

Middle. 

Sweet. 


Familiar  and 

Indo-Eur. 

patar- 

matar- 

svakura- 

snusha- 

bhratar- 

svasar-  (?) 

pati- 

dama- 

sadas- 

vatas- 

agra- 

gau- 

avi- 

su 

yuga- 

rata- 

madhya- 

svadu- 


HOUSEHOLD 
Sanskr. 
pitri- 
matri- 
9va9ura- 
snusha- 
bhratri- 
svasar- 
pati- 
dama- 
sadas- 
vatsa- 
ajra- 
go- 
avi- 
su- 
yuga- 
rata- 
madhya 
svadu- 


WORDS. 

Greek. 
Trar'fip 

fl-flTJjp 

iKvpSs 
vv6s 
(Ppdrtip  1 

irSffis 

HSfXOS         ^ 

Utos 

&yp6s 

/Sous 

6is 

5y,  cris 

(vy6y 

/Macros 


Latin. 

[unus] 

duo 

tres 

quattuor 

quinque 

sex 

septem 

octo 

novem 

decern 

dttddecim 

tredecim 

viginti 

triginta 

centum 


Latin. 

pater 

mater 

socer 

nurus 

frater 

soror 

potis 

domus 

sedes 

vetus  (old) 

ager 

bos 

ovis 

sus 

jugum 

rota  (7vheel) 

medius 


The  emigrants  who  peopled  the  Italian  peninsula  also  divided 
into  several  branches,  and  the  language  of  each  branch  had  its  own 
development,  until  they  were  finally  crowded  out  by  the  dominant 
Latin.  Fragments  of  some  of  these  dialects  have  been  preserved, 
in  monumental  remains,  or  as  cited  by  Roman  antiquarians,  though 
no  literature  now  exists  in  them  ;  and  other  fragments  were  prob- 

'  Clansman. 


Appendix. 


303 


ably  incorporated  in  that  popular  or  rustic  dialect  which  formed 
the  basis  of  the  modern  Italian.  The  most  important  of  these 
ancient  languages  of  Italy  —  not  including  Etruscan,  which  was 
of  uncertain  origin  —  were  the  Oscan  of  Campania,  and  the  Um- 
brian  of  the  northern  districts.  Some  of  their  forms,  as  compared 
with  the  Latin,  may  be  seen  in  the  following  :  — 


Latin. 

Oscan. 

Umbrian. 

Latin. 

Oscan. 

Umbrian. 

accinere 

arkane 

neque 

nep 

alteri  (loc. 

)  alttrei 

per 

perum 

argento 

aragetud 

portet 

portaia 

avibus 

aveis 

quadrupedibus 

peturpursus 

censor 

censtur 

quattuor 

petora 

petur 

censebit 

censazet 

quinque 

pomtis 

contra,  F. 

contrud,  n 

. 

qui,  quis 

pis 

pis 

cornicem 

curnaco 

quid 

pid 

dextra 

destru 

quod 

pod 

pod 

dicere 

deicum  (of.  venum-do) 

cui 

piei 

dixerit 

dicust 

quom 

pone,  pune 

duodecim 

desenduf 

rectori 

regaturei 

extra 

ehtrad 

siquis 

svepis 

facito 

factud 

stet 

stain  (stai 

et) 

fecerit 

fefacust 

subvoco 

subocau 

fertote 

fertuta 

sum 

sum 

fratribus 

fratrus 

est 

i«st 

ibi 

ip 

sit 

set 

imperator 

embratur 

fuerit 

fust 

fust 

inter 

anter 

anter 

fuerunt 

fufans 

liceto 

licitud 

fuat 

fuid 

fuia 

magistro 

mestru 

tertium 

tertim 

medius 

mefa 

ubi 

puf 

mugiatur 

mugatu 

uterque 

puturus  pid 

multare 

moltaum 

utrique 

putereio 

putrespe 

Fragments  of  early  Latin  are  preserved  in  inscriptions  dating 
back  to  the  third  century  before  the  Christian  era ;  and  some  Laws 
are  attributed  to  a  much  earlier  date,  —  to  Romulus  (b.c.  750)  and 
Numa  (B.C.  700)  ;  and  especially  to  the  Decemvirs  (Twelve  Tables, 
B.C.  450)  ;  but  in  their  present  form  no  authentic  dates  can  be 
assigned  to  them.  Some  of  these  are  usually  given  in  a  supplement 
to  the  Lexicon.     (See  also  Cic.  De  Legibus,  especially  ii.  8,  iii.  3,  4.) 

Latin  did  not  exist  as  a  literary  language,  in  any  compositions 
known  to  us,  until  about  B.C.  200.  At  that  time  it  was  already 
strongly  influenced  by  the  writings  of  the  Greeks,  which  were  the 
chief  objects  of  literary  study  and  admiration.  The  most  popular 
plays,  those  of  Plautus  and  Terence,  were  simply  translations  from 


304  Appendix. 

Greek,  introducing  freely,  however,  the  popul.ir  dialect  and  the 
slang  of  the  Roman  streets.  As  illustrations  of  life  and  m.ii.ners 
they  belong  as  much  to  Athens  as  to  Rome.  And  the  natural 
growth  of  a  genuine  Roman  literature  seems  to  have  been  thus 
very  considerably  checked  or  suppressed.  Orations,  rhetorical 
works,  letters,  and  histories,  —  deahng  with  the  practical  affairs 
and  passions  of  poHtics,  —  seem  to  be  nearly  all  that  sprang  direct 
from  the  native  soil.  The  Latin  poets  of  the  Empire  were  mostly 
court-poets,  writing  for  a  cultivated  and  luxurious  class  :  satires  and 
epistles  alone  keep  the  flavor  of  Roman  manners,  and  exhibit  the 
famiHar  features  of  Italian  life. 

In  its  use  since  the  classic  period,  Latin  is  known  chiefly  as 
the  language  of  the  Civil  Code,  which  gave  the  law  to  a  large  part 
of  Europe  ;  as  the  language  of  historians,  diplomatists,  and  philos- 
ophers during  the  Middle  Age,  and  in  some  countries  to  a  much 
later  period  ;  as  the  official  language  of  the  Church  and  Court  of 
Rome,  down  to  the  present  day  ;  as,  until  recently,  the  common 
language  of  scholars,  so  as  still  to  be  the  ordinary  channel  of  com- 
munication among  many  learned  classes  and  societies ;  and  as  the 
universal  language  of  Science,  especially  of  the  descriptive  sciences, 
so  that  many  hundreds  of  Latin  terms,  or  derivative  forms,  must  be 
known  familiarly  to  any  one  who  would  have  a  clear  knowledge  of 
the  facts  of  the  natural  world,  or  be  able  to  recount  them  intelligibly 
to  men  of  science.  In  some  of  these  uses  it  may  still  be  regarded 
as  a  living  language  ;  while,  conventionally,  it  retains  its  place  as 
the  foundation  of  a  liberal  education. 

During  the  classical  period  of  the  language,  Latin  existed  not 
only  in  its  literary  or  urban  form,  but  in  several  local  dialects, 
known  by  the  collective  name  of  lingua  rustica,  far  simpler  in  their 
forms  of  inflection  than  the  classic  Latin.  This,  it  is  probable,  was 
the  basis  of  modern  Italian,  which  has  preserved  many  of  the 
ancient  words  without  aspirate  or  case-inflection,  as  orto  (Jiortus), 
gente  {gens).  In  the  colonies  longest  occupied  by  the  Romans, 
Latin  —  often  in  its  ruder  and  more  popular  form — grew  into  the 
language  of  the  common  people.  Hence  the  modern  languages 
called  *' Romance"  or  "Romanic";  viz.,  Italian,  Spanish,  Portu- 
guese, and  French,  together  with  the  Catalan  of  Northeastern 
Spain,  the  Provencal  or  Troubadour  language  of  the  South  of 
France,  the  "  Rouman"  or  Wallachian  of  the  lower  Danube  (Rou- 
mania),  and  the  "  Roumansch  "  of  some  districts  of  Switzerhnd. 

A  comparison  of  words  in  several  of  these  tongues  with  Latin 
will  serve  to  illustrate  that  process  of  phonetic  decay  to  which 
reference  has  been  made  in  the  body  of  this  Grammar,  as  well  as 


Appendix. 


305 


the  degree  in  which  the  substance  of  the  language  has  remained 
unchanged.  Thus,  in  the  verb  to  be  the  general  tense-system  has 
been  preserved  from  the  Latin  in  all  these  languages,  together 
with  both  of  the  stems  on  which  it  is  built,  and  the  personal 
endings,  somewhat  abraded,  which  can  be  traced  throughout.  The 
following  exhibit  the  verb-forms  with  considerably  less  alteration 
than  is  found  in  the  other  Romanic  tongues  :  — 


Latin. 

Italian. 

Spanish. 

Portuguese. 

French. 

Provencal. 

sum 

sono 

soy 

sou 

suis 

son  (sui) 

es 

sei 

eres 

es 

es 

ses  (est) 

est 

e 

es 

he 

est 

es  (ez) 

sumus 

siamo 

somos 

somos 

sommes 

sem  (em) 

estis 

siete 

sois 

sois 

etes 

etz  (es) 

sunt 

sono 

son 

sao 

sont 

sont  (son) 

eram 

era 

era 

era 

etais  (STA) 

era 

eras 

eri 

eras 

eras 

etais 

eras 

erat 

era 

era 

era 

etait 

era 

eramus 

eravamo 

eramos 

eramos 

etions 

eram 

eratis 

eravate 

erais 

ereis 

etiez 

eratz 

erant 

erano 

eran 

erao 

etaient 

eran 

fui 

fui 

fui 

fui 

fus 

fui 

fuisti 

fosti 

fuiste 

f6ste 

fus 

fust 

fuit 

fii 

fue 

foi 

fut 

fo  (fon) 

fuimus 

fummo 

fuimos 

fomos 

fumes 

fom 

fuistis 

foste 

fuisteis 

fostos 

fiites 

fotz 

fuerunt 

fiirono 

fueron 

forao 

furent 

foren 

sim 

sia 

sea 

seja 

sois 

sia 

sis 

sii 

seas 

sejas 

sois 

si  as 

sit 

sia 

sea 

seja 

soit 

sia 

simus 

siamo 

seamos 

sejimos 

soyons 

siam 

sitis 

siate 

seals 

sejais 

soyez 

siatz 

sint 

siano 

sean 

sejao 

soient 

si  an 

fuissem 

fossi 

fuese 

fosse 

fusse 

fos 

fuisses 

fossi 

fueses 

fosses 

fusses 

fosses 

fuisset 

fosse 

fuese 

fosse 

fut 

fossa  (fosl 

fuissemus 

fossimo 

fuesemos 

fossemos 

fussions 

fossem 

fuissetis 

foste 

fueseis 

fosseis 

fussiez 

fossetz 

fuissent 

fossero 

fuesen 

f6ssem 

fussent 

fossen 

es 

sii 

se 

se 

sois 

Bias 

esto 

sia 

sea 

seja 

soit 

sia 

este 

siate 

sed 

sMe 

soyez 

siatz 

sunto 

siano 

sean 

sejao 

soient 

sian 

esse 

^ssere 

ser 

ser 

etre 

esser 

[sens] 

essendo 

siendo 

sendo 

etant 

essent 

3o6  Appendix. 

PRINCIPAL    ROMAN    WRITERS. 

B.C. 

T.  Maccius  Plautus,  Comedies 254-184 

Q.  Ennius,  Annals,  Satires,  Qr'c.  (Fragments)  .     .     .  239-169 

M.  Porcius  Cato,  Husbandry,  Antiquities,  &*c.       .     .  234-149 

M.  Pacuvius,   Tragedies  (Fragments) 220-130 

P.  Terentius  Ater  (Terence),  C^w<?^/>j 195-^59 

C.  Lucilius,  Satires  (Fragments) 148-103 

L.  Attius  (or  Accius),  Tragedies  (Fragments)   .     .     .  170-75 

M.Ttr&x\W\i?,W2irro,  Husbandry,  Antiquities,  6r*c.     .  116-28 

M.  Tullius  Cicero,  Orations,  Letters,  Dialogues     .     .  106-43 

C.  Julius  Caesar,  Comwentaries 100-44 

T.  Lucretius  Carus,  Poem  "  De  Rerum  Natura "    .     .  95-52 

C.  Valerius  Catullus,  Miscellaneous  Poems   ....  87-47 

C.  Sallustius  Crispus  (Sallust),  Histories  ....  86-34 
Cornelius  Nepos,  Lives  of  Famous  Commanders   .     . 

P.  Vergilius  Maro  (Virgil),  Eclogues,  Georgics,  JSneid  70-19 

Q.  Horatius  Flaccus  (Horace),  Satires,  Odes,  Epistles  65-8 

Albius  Tibullus,  Elegies 54-i8 

Sex.  Aurelius  Propertius,  Elegies 51-15 

T.  Livius  Patavinus  (Livy),  Roman  History     .     .     .  59-A.D.  17 

P.  Ovidius  Naso  (Ovid),  Metamorphoses,  Fasti,  dr'c.  43-A.D.  18 

M.  Valerius  Maximus,  Anecdotes,  dr'c -31 

C.  Velleius  Paterculus,  Roman  History 19-31 

Pomponius  Mela,  Husbandry  6r»  Geography      .     .     .  -50 

A.  Persius  Flaccus,  Satires a.d.  34-62 

L.  Annaeus  Seneca,  Philos.  Letters,  &*c.j  Tragedies  .  -65 

M.  Annaeus  Lucanus,  Historical  Poem  "Pharsalia"  .  39-^5 

Q.  Curtius  Rufus,  History  of  Alexander .'' 

C.  Plinius  Secundus  (Pliny),  Nat.  Hist.,  ^c.    .     .     .  23-79 

C.  Valerius  F'laccus,  Heroic  Poem  "  Argonautica  "      .  -88 

P.  Papinius  Statius,  Heroic  Poems  "  Thebais,"  &c.     .  61-96 

C.  Silius  Italicus, //<?r^/<r /^^<?;«  "Punica"     ....  25-100 

D.  Junius  Juvenalis  (Juvenal),  6'^z//r^j 40-120 

L.  Anndeua  F\orus,  Historical  Abridgment    ....  -120 

M.  Valerius  Martialis  (Martial),  Epigrams    .     .     .  43-io4 

M.  Fabius  Quintilianus,  Rhetoric 40-118 

C.  Cornelius  Tncitus,  Annals,  History,  6f*c 60-118 

C.  Plinius  Caecilius  Secundus  (Pliny  Junior),  Letters  61-115 

C.  Suetonius  Tranquillus,  7 he  Twelve  Caesars  .     .     .  70- 

Apuleius,  Philos.  Writings,  "  Metamorphoses  "     .     .  1 10- 

A.  Gellius,  A//>r^//rt«/>j, '*' Noctes  Atticae  "  .     .     .     .  about -180 

t  Q.  Septimius  Florens  TertuUianus,  Apologist      .     .  160-240 

i  M.  M\m\c'\ui^  Vehx,  Apologetic  Dialogue     ....  about -250 

t  Firmianus  Lactantius,  Theology 250-325 

Vi.^-x^rwi^  h}x^ox\\\\?>.  Miscellaneous  Poems .     .     .     .  -380 

Ammianus  Marcellinus,  Roman  History -395 

Claudius  Claudianus,  Poems,  Panegyrics,  6r*c.  .     .     .  -408 

f  Aurelius  Prudentius  Clemens,  Christian  Poems  .     .  348-410 

X  Aurelius  Augustinus,  Confessions^  Discourses,  dr*c.  .  354-43° 

Anicius  Manlius  Boethius,  Philosophical  Dialogues    .  470-520 

t  Christian  writers. 


INDEX. 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS. 


Note.  —  The  numerical  references  are  to  sections,  with  a  few  exceptions  in  which 
the  page  (p.)  is  referred  to.  The  letters  refer  to  subsections.  The  letter  N.  signifies  Note  ; 
R.,  Remark.  Ace.  or  accus.  =  accusative  ;  adj.  =  adjective  ;  conj.  =  conjugation  ; 
constr.  =  construction  ;  gen.  =  genitive  ;  gend.  =:  gender  ;  loc.  =  locative  ;  prep.  ==  prep- 
osition ;   subj.  =  subjunctive. 


-a,  characteristic  of  decl.  I.,  32; 
ace.  of  Gr.  nouns  in,  63.  /;  stem- 
vowel  of  conj.  I.,  122, 123,  126.  a  ] 
in  subj.,  126.  d,  c;  quantity  of  a 
final,  348.  4 ;  in  increments,  350, 

351- 

a  (ab,  abs),  use  of,  153,  260.  b, 
263  ;  with  abl.  of  agent,  246,  263 ; 
in  composition,  with  dat.,  229 ; 
with  abl.  of  gerund,  301. 

Abbreviations  of  praenomens,  80.  d; 
other  abbreviations,  p.  297. 

Ablative,  meaning,  31./;  in  -abus, 
36.  e  ;  of  i-stems,  decl.  III.,  55.  e  ; 
rules  of  form,  57  ;  nouns  having 
abl.  in  i,  57.  a,d;  of  decl.  IV.,  in 
-ubus,  70.  d;  abl.  used  as  supine, 
7 1 .  a ;  of  adjs.,  decl.  III.,  87.  a,  b ; 
quo  .  . .  eo  (correlative),  106.  c\ 
prepositions  followed  by,  152.  b  \ 
with  ex  or  e  for  part,  gen.,  216. 
c ;  of  crime  or  penalty,  220.  b ; 
with  dono,  etc.,  225.  d ;  with 
pro  (for  defence),  236.  R. ; 
Syntax,  242-255 ;  meaning  and 
classification,  242  and  N. ;  of  sep- 
aration, 243 ;  source  and  material, 
244  ;  cause,  245 ;  with  dignus, 
etc.,  24^.  a;  of  agent  with  ab,  246, 
263 ;  comparison,  247  ;  means, 
manner,  &c.,  248 ;  with  utor,  etc.. 


249 ;  deg.  of  diff.,  250 ;  of  quality, 
251;  price,  252;  specification, 
253;  locative  use  of,  254 ;  abl.  ab- 
solute, 255  ;  time  and  place,  256- 
259  ;  way  by  which,  258.  g;  with 
preps.,  260-263;  with  palam, 
etc.,  261.  b;  to  denote  agent,  263 ; 
of  gerund,  301.    (See  N.,  p.  167.) 

Abounding,  words  of,  with  abl., 
248.  c ;   with  gen.,  223. 

Absolute  time  denoted  by  indie, 
264.  a  ;  in  independent  clauses  by 
subj.,  283 ;  absol.  and  relative  time, 
323-325,  with  foot-note,  p.  234. 

Abstract  nouns  in  plural,  75.  c; 
endings  of,  163.  b,  e,  f  \  with 
neut.  adj.,  187.  c,  189.  a,  b. 

-abus  in  dat.  and  abl.  plur.,  decl.  I., 
36.  e. 

ac,  see  atque;  acsi,  312. 

Acatalectic  verse,  359.  a. 

Accent,  rules  of,  19  ;  marks  of,  id. 
N.;  musical,  358;  foot-note,  p. 292. 

accidit,  synopsis  of,  145 ;  constr. 
of,  332.  a. 

Accompaniment,  abl.  of,  248. 

Accusative,  31.  d;  in  im,  decl.  III., 
56.  a,  b',  in  is  (plur.),  58;  in  a, 
63.  /;  ace.  of  decl.  IV.,  used  as 
supine,  71.  «  ;  neut.  used  as  adv., 
148.  d\    fem.   used  as  adv.,  id. 


3IO 


Index, 


N.  € ;  prepositions  followed  by, 
152.  a-y  as  object,  177;  with 
verbs  of  remembering,  219 ;  with 
impersonals,  221.  b,  237,  e-y  with 
dat.,  225  ;  with  juvo,  etc.,  227.  a ; 
with  compounds  of  ad,  ante,  ob, 
228.  a ;  with  ad  for  dat.,  234.  d ; 
after  propior,  etc.,  id.  e;  Syntax, 
237-240;  direct  object,  237 ;  with 
verbs  oi  feeling  and  taste,  id.  b,  c ; 
with  comps.  of  circum  and  trans, 
id.  d\  with  impersonals,  id.  e; 
cognate  ace,  238 ;  two  aces.,  239 ; 
with  pass,  of  verbs  of  asking,  &.C., 
239.  R. ;  adverbial  use  of,  240. 
a,  b;  synecdochical  ace,  id.  c; 
in  exclamations,  id.  d;  duration 
and  extent,  id.  e,  256,  257 ;  subject 
of  inf.,  240.  /,  272,  330;  with 
pridie,  propius,  etc.,  261.  a;  ace. 
of  gerund,  300;  of  anticipation, 
334.  c ;  in  indirect  discouree,  336. 

Accusing  and  acquitting,  verbs  of, 
220. 

acer,  decl.,  84. 

-aceus,  adj.  ending,  164.^. 

acquiesco  with  abl.,  254.  b. 

Actions,  names  of,  163 ;  nouns  of, 
with  gen.,  217. 

Active  voice,  11 1. 

acus,  gender,  69.  a. 

ad,  use  of,  153;  in  compounds  with 
dat.,  228;  meaning  mar,  259./. 

adamas,  decl.,  63.  e. 

-ades  patronymic,  164.  b. 

adimo,  constr.  of,  229. 

Adjectives,  defined,  25.  ^ ;  of  1st  and 
2d  decls.,  81-83 ;  of  3d  decl.,  84- 
87  ;  of  two  or  three  terminations, 
84  ;  of  one  termination,  85 ;  in- 
flection of  comparative,  86.  a; 
used  as  adverbs,  86.  b,  88.  t/,  148. 
</,  <>,  N.,  191 ;  used  as  nouns,  88.  a, 


188,  218.  </;  of  common  gend.,  88. 
b;  nouns  used  as  adjs.,  88.  c;  Com- 
parison, 89-91 ;  adverbs  derived 
from,  81.  <J,  84.  (/,  148;  numeral 
adjs.,  94, 95;  derivative  forms,  164; 
adjective  phrase,  1 79 ;  agreement 
of,  186,  187;  neut.  adjs.,  how 
used,  189  ;  two  comparatives  with 
quam,  192;  adjective  pronouns, 
195-203;  adjs.  with  gen.,  218; 
adjs.  with  dat.,  234;  adjs.  with 
inf.,  273,  i/;  participles  used  as, 
291 ;  with  supine  in  u,  303.  R. ; 
position  of,  343.  c. 

adiuvo,  constr.  of,  227.  a. 

admodum,  93.  a(. 

Admonishing,  verbs  of,  331.  a. 

Adonic  verse,  371.  3. 

Adverbs,  defined,  25./;  formed  from 
adjs.,  81.3,  84.  </,  88.  a;  148 ;  com- 
pared, 92 ;  numeral  adverbs,  96 ; 
correlative  advs.,  used  as  conjs., 
107;  classification,  149;  of  place, 
correlative  forms  of,  149. foot-note. 
Syntax,  207.     (See  n.,  p.  140.) 

Adverbial  ace,  240.  a,  b. 

Adverbial  conjunctions,  25. 1. 

Adverbial  phrase,  148.  N.  6,  179. 

Adversative  conjunctions,  155.  B. 

adversus,  152.  foot-note;  with  ace, 
id.  a. 

se,  diphthong,  i  ;  sound  of,  16.  N. 

aedes,  sing,  and  plur.,  78.  c. 

.^neas,  decl.,  37. 

setas,  decl.,  54. 

sequalis,  affinis,  constr.  with  gen., 
218.  J. 

Affix,  close  and  open,  24.  N. 

Agency,  nouns  of,  162. 

Agent,  dat.  of,  with  gerundives,  232 ; 
with  perf.  parts.,  id.  a  ;  abl.  of, 
after  pass,  verbs,  246,  263. 

ager,  decl.,  38. 


tnde 


ex. 


3^1 


AGH,  verb-root,  144.  a,  foot-note. 

agnomen,  80.  b. 

Agreement,  181 ;  forms  of,  182;  of 
nouns,  183;  in  appos.,  184;  in 
predicate,  185 ;  ofadjs.,  186;  of 
demonstrative  pronouns,  195  ;  of 
possessive  pronouns,  197;  of  rela- 
tives, 198, 199 ;  of  verbs,  204,  205. 

ai  for  36,  decl.  I.,  36.  a. 

aio,  144.  a. 

-aius  in  Prosody,  347.  a.  4. 

-al  and  -ar,  neuters  in  (decl.  III.), 
53.  b\  list  of  nouns  in,  53.  foot- 
note 2. 

alacer,  decl.,  84.  a. 

albus,  not  compared,  89.  N, 

Alcaic  verse,  371.  9,  10. 

Alcmanian  strophe,  364.  a. 

ali-,  old  stem,  83.  foot-note. 

alienus,  83.  foot-note ;  for  poss. 
gen.,  190. 

aliquis,  decl.,  105.^;  meaning  of, 
202.  a,  b. 

-alls,  -aris,  164.  d. 

alius,  decl.,  83  and  foot-note;  with 
abl.,  247.  d. 

alius . . .  alius,  alter . . .  alter,  203. 

Alphabet,  i ;  vowels  and  diphthongs, 
I ;  consonants,  2 ;  table  of  vowels 
and  consonants,  2,  5  ;  early  forms 
of  letters,  6. 

alter,  decl.,  83. 

Although,  how  expressed,  313, 320,  e. 

amo,  conj.,  pp.  76-79. 

amb-,  inseparable  prefix,  170.  b. 

ambo,  decl.,  94.  b. 

amplius,  without  quam,  247,  c. 

an,  anne,  annon,  211. 

Anacrusis,  355.  ^. 

Anapaest,  356.  b\  anapsestic  verse, 
360,  374.  a. 

Anaphora,  344.  / 

Anchises,  decl.,  37. 


animal,  decl.,  52. 

animi  (loc),  with  adjs.,  218.  c.  R. 

Answers,  forms  of,  212. 

ante,  152.  a,  153;  in  compounds 
with  dat.,  228  ;  adverbial  use  of, 
261.  d;   followed  by  quam,  262. 

ante  diem,  259.  e. 

Antecedent,  its  use  with  relative, 
198,  200. 

Antepenult,  19,  Def, 

antequam,  327. 

Antithesis,  344,  i. 

Antibacchius,  356.  e. 

-anus,  adjs.  in,  164.  c. 

Aorist  (=  hist,  perf.),  115.  b,  foot- 
note I. 

apage,  144./ 

a  parte,  242.  n.  ;  260.  b. 

Apodosis,  265.  R.,  304;  indie,  of  cer- 
tain conditions,  308.  b^  311.  c. 

Apposition,  184. 

Appositive,  184;  agreement,  id.  <5; 
with  locative,  id.  c ;  gen.  of,  with 
possessives,  id.  d,  197.  e\  gen. 
sometimes  used  for,  214./ 

aptus  ad,  234.  b-^  aptus  qui,  320./. 

Archilochian  verse,  368. 

-aris,  164.  d;   -arius,  164.  h. 

Aristophanic  verse,  371.  2. 

Arrangement  of  words,  343-346. 

Arsis  and  Thesis,  358  and  foot-note. 

-as,  old  gen.  in,  36.  b ;  ace.  pi.  of 
Gr.  nouns  in  S.s,  63.  /. 

As,  value  of,  377. 

Asclepiadic  verse,  371.  5,  6. 

Asking,  verbs  of,  constr.  with  two 
ace,  239.  c;  with  clause,  331.  a. 

Aspirate  (h),  i.  N. 

-assere,  in  fut.  inf.,  128.  <?. 

Assibilation,  12.  N. 

Assimilation  of  consonants,  ii.yC 

assis,  gen.  of  value,  252.  b. 

ast,  156.  b. 


312 


Index. 


Asyndeton,  208.  h,  foot-note,  346.  c. 

at,  156.  b\  at  vero,  208.  e. 

at-,  patrial  stem-ending,  54.  3. 

ater,  not  compared,  89.  N. 

Athos,  decl.,  43. 

Atlas,  decl.,  64. 

atque  (ac),  156.  a. 

atqui,  156.  b. 

atrox,  decl.,  85. 

Attraction  of  relative,  199.  a. 

Aftributive  adjective,  186.  «;  takes 

gender  of  nearest  noun,  187. 
-atus,  164./ 
audeo,  136. 
audio,  cdnj.,  p.  86. 
ausim,  136.  a. 
ausus  as  pres.  part.,  290.  b. 
aut.  156.  c  ;  212.  R. 
autem,  156.  b,  k\  345.  b. 
Authority  in  Prosody,  p.  263.  N. 
ave  (or  have),  144./. 
-ax,  verbal  ending,  164.  /;  adjs.  in, 

with  gen.,  218.  b. 
AYA,  as  origin  of  verb-forms,  123. 

foot-note  I. 

Bacchiac  verse,  374.  b. 
Bacchius,  356.  d. 

-bam, tense-ending,  118.  foot-note  i. 
Bargaining,  verbs  of,  constr. :  ger., 

294.  d\  clause,  331.  ^. 
basis,  decl.,  64. 

Believing,  verbs  of,  with  dat.,  227. 
belli,  locative  use  of,  258.  d. 
bellum,  decl.,  38. 
bene,  compounds  of,  constr.,  227.  e. 
Benefiting,  verbs  of,  constr.,  227. 
-ber,  names  of  months  in,  84.  a. 
-bills,  verbals  in,  164.  in. 
Birth  or  origin,  parts,  of,  with  abl., 

244.  a. 
bonus,  decl.,  81. 
bos,  decl.,  60.  bt  61. 


-bri,  stems  ending  in,  51.^;  adjs 

in,  84.  a. 
-brum,  suffix,  163.  d. 
-bulum,  suffix,  163.  d. 
-bundus,  verbals  in,  164./. 
Buying,  verbs  of,  constr.,  252.  d. 

C  for  g,  in  early  use,  6 ;  for  qu,  7 ; 
gend.  of  nouns  in  c,  65.  c\  quantity 
of  final  syllables  ending  in,  348. 10. 

Caesura,  358.  b\  masc.  and  fem. 
362.  b.  K. ;  bucolic  caesura,  id. 

Calendar,  Roman,  376, 

Calends,  376.  a. 

campester,  decl.,  84.  a. 

CAP,  root,  45.  a. 

Capacity,  measures  of,  383. 

capio.  conj.,  p.  83. 

capitis,  with  verbs  of  accusing, 
220.  a. 

caput,  decl.,  46.    Capys.  decl.,  64. 

carbasus,  gend.,  39.  a  ;  plur.,  79.  b. 

Cardinal  numbers,  94 ;  inflection  of, 
id.  a-e. 

caro,  decl.  of,  61. 

Case-constructions,  N.,  p.  145. 

Case-endings,  table,  34. 

Case-forms,  words  defective  in,  77. 

Cases,  defined,  31  ;  agreement  in, 
183;  origin  and  meaning  of,  p. 
145.  N. ;  constructions  of,  213- 
263;  genitive,  213-223;  dative, 
224-236  ;  accusative,  237-240 ; 
vocative,  241  ;  ablative,  242-255; 
time  and  place,  256-259;  cases 
with  preps.,  260;  258.  foot-note. 

castrum,  castra,  78.  c. 

Catalectic  verse,  359.  a. 

causa,  with  gen.,  214.^;  245.  r. 

Causal  clauses,  321. 

Causal  conjunctions,  155.  C;  parti- 
cles, 321. 

Cause,  abl.  of,  245. 


Index. 


313 


Cause,  adverbs  of,  149.  c. 

Caution  and  effort,  verbs  of,  331.  e. 

cave,  in  prohibitions,  269.  a ;  ne 
omitted  after,  331./^  R. 

-ce,  enclitic,  icx).  foot-note;  loi. 
a  and  foot-note. 

cedo  (defective),  144.  / 

celeber,  decl.,  84.  a. 

celer,  forms  of,  84.  a  and  c, 

celo,  with  ace,  239.  d. 

certe,  certo,  151.  c. 

ceterus,  193. 

cette  (cedite),  144./ 

ceu,  312. 

-ceus,  adj.  ending,  164.^. 

Characteristic,  clause  of,  320  (see 
|,        Note,  p.  230). 
f^    chelys,  decl.,  64. 

Chiasmus,  344.  f. 

Choliambic  trimeter,  365.  c. 

Choosing,  verbs  of,  constr.,  239.  a. 

Choriambic  verse,  370.  N. 

Choriambus,  356.  c. 

ci  or  ti,  interchange  of,  12,  a. 

cip-.  stems  in  (decl.  III.),  45.  a. 

circum,  circa,  circiter,  use  of,  153; 
comps.  of  circum  with  ace,  237.  d. 

circumdo,  constr,  of,  225.  d. 

Circumflex  accent,  19.  N. 

Cities,  gend.  of  names  of,  29  and  b. 

cis,  citerior,  91. 

clam,  constr.  of,  261.  c. 

Classes,  gend.  of  names  of,  28.  d; 
used  in  plur.,  76.  2. 

Clauses,  kinds  of,  180;  used  as  a 
noun,  214.  d\  dependent,  syntax 
of,  316-342  incl. ;  conditional, 
316;  final,  317,  318  ;  consecutive, 
319,320;  causal,  321  ;  temporal, 
322-328 ;  substantive,  329-339 
incl. ;  infinitive  clauses,  330 ;  sub- 
stantive clauses  of  purpose,  331 ; 
of  result,  332 ;  indie,  with  quod, 


333  ;  indirect  questions,  334 ;   in- 
direct discourse,  335-342. 

clienta  (fem.  form),  28.  b\  85.  c. 

Close  syllables,  14.  d. 

coepi,  143.  a. 

Cognate  ace,  238. 

Cognomen,  80.  a. 

Collective  noun  with  pi.  verb,  205.  c 

Combinations  of  words,  13.  a. 

cometes,  decl,,  37. 

comitium,  comitia,  79.  c. 

Commanding,  verbs  of,  with  dat., 
227;   331.  a;   332./^. 

Commands,  expressed  by  the  im- 
perative, 269  ;  for  condition,  310. 
b  ;  in  indir.  disc,  339. 

committere  ut,  332.  e. 

Common  gender,  30 ;  adjs.  of,  88.  b. 

Common  syllables,  18.  e,  347.  d. 

communis,  with  gen.,  218.  d. 

Comparative  conjunctions,  155.  E.; 
in  conditions,  312. 

Comparative  suffix,  89.  foot-note. 

Comparatives,  decl.,  86 ;  neut.  sing, 
used  as  adv.,  86.  b\  signification 
of,  93.  a ;   construction  with,  247. 

Comparison  of  adjectives,  89 ;  irreg- 
ular, 90;  defective,  91  ;  of  ad- 
verbs, 92 ;  conjunctions  of,  208.  a. 

Complement  with  neuter  verb,  1 76. 

Complementary  infinitive,  271. 

Completed  action,  tenses  of,  115; 
how  formed,  126. y^^;  in  the  pass., 
147.  b',  use  of,  279. 

Complex  sentence,  180.  b. 

complures,  compluria,  86.  c. 

Compound  sentences,  j(8o. 

Compound  words,  how  formed,  168- 
170;  compounds  of  preps,  with 
dat.,  228 ;  of  ab,  de,  ex,  229 ; 
with  ace,  237.  dy  239.  d\  quan- 
tity of,  354.  c.  [277.  c. 

Conative  present,  276.  b ;  imperfect, 


3M 


Tndex. 


Concession,  subjunctive  of,  266.  c ; 
verbs  of,  with  ut,  331.  c. 

Concessive  conjunctions,  155.  f.  ; 
particles,  use  of,  313. 

Concords,  forms  of,  182. 

Condemning,  verbs  of,  220. 

Conditional  Clauses,  180.  d. 

Conditional  Conjunctions,  155.  D. 

Conditional  Sentences,  304-315  ; 
origin  and  form  of,  p,  214  ;  prot- 
asis and  apodosis,  304 ;  classes 
of,  305  ;  simple  condition,  306  ; 
future  condition,  307  ;  condition 
contrary  to  fact,  308;  general  con- 
ditions, 309 ;  condition  disguised, 
310  ;  condition  omitted,  311 ;  rel. 
clauses,  316;  in  indirect  disc,  337. 

Conditional  Particles,  312. 

confit,  142.  ^. 

Conjugation  defined,  26 ;  conjuga- 
tions of  verbs,  122-147;  regular 
forms  of,  125.  f  ;  stem-vowels  of, 
122-125  ;  paradigms  of  four  regu- 
lar conjugations,  pp.  76-87. 

Conjunctions  defined,  25.  A  ;  classes 
of,  154;  list  of,  155;  use  of,  156; 
Syntax  of,  208 ;  omitted,  id.  d. 

Conjunctivtis  modestice,  311.  b. 

Connecting  vowel  (so-called),  123, 
foot-note. 

Connectives,  relatives  used  as,  180./ 

Consecutive  clauses  defined,  180.  ^  ; 
of  charact.  and  result,  319,  320. 

Consecutive  conjunctions,  155.  H. 

Consonants,  classification  of,  2  ; 
changes,  1 1 ;  consonant  stems  of 
nouns,  decl.  III.,  44-50 ;  of  ad- 
jectives, 85. 

constare,  with  abl.,  244.  c. 

constat,  synopsis,  145. 
Constructio  pragnans^  238.  b. 
Constructions  of  cases,  213-263. 
Constructions,  synopsis  of,  p.  254. 


consul,  dec!.,  49. 

consul©,  with  dat.  or  ace,  227.  c. 

Contention,  words  of,  constr,,  248.  b. 

contentus  with  abl.,  254.  b ;  with 
perf.  inf.,  288.  e. 

Continued  action,  tenses  of,  115. 

contra,  use  of,  153. 

Contracting,  verbs  of,  with  gerund- 
ive, 294.  d. 

Contraction  of  vowels,  10.  r;  in  pros- 
ody, 347.  c  ;    of  syllables,  355.  d. 

convenio,  with  ace,  228.  a. 

Co-ordinate  conjunctions,  154.  a  ; 
clauses,  180.  a. 

Copula,  copulative  verbs,  176.  a. 

Copulative  conjunctions,  155.  A. 

corpus,  decl.,  49. 

Correlatives,  106,  107;  rendered  by 
as,  106.  b;  by  the  .  .  .  t/ie,  id.  c  •, 
adverbs  of  place,  149.  a  ;  conjs., 
156.  /i,  208.  d. 

Countries,  gender,  29  and  b, 

Crasis,  347.  c. 

credo,  position  of,  345.  c. 

Cretic  foot,  356.  d;  verse,  374.  c. 

Crime  or  charge,  gen.  of,  220. 

-crum,  noun-ending,  163.  d. 

cuicuimodi,  105.  b. 

cujas,  cujus,  105./ 

cujusmodi.  215.  a. 

-cuius,  dim.  ending,  164.  a. 

cum  (conj.),  156.^^  cum  .  .  .  turn, 
156.  /i;  with  clause  for  part.,  290. 
c,  </,  326.  b',  causal,  321 ;  causal  or 
conces.,  326;  temporal,  322,  325. 

cum  (prep.),  joined  with  pronouns, 
99.^,  104.  <• ;  use  of,  153;  with 
plur.  verb,  205  ;  with  abl.  of  man- 
ner, 248.  R. ;  wth  abl.  of  accom- 
paniment, 248.  a  ;  with  words  of 
contention,  248.  b ;  with  words 
of  exchange,  252.  c. 

-cumque,  added  to  relatives,  105. 


Index. 


315 


-cundus,  verbal  ending,  164./. 
cup-,  stem-ending,  45.  a. 
Customary  action,  277,  309.  b, 

D  final,  anciently  t,  8. 

Dactyl,  356.  b  ;  Cyclic,  id.  N. 

Dactylic  verse,  360 ;  hexameter, 
362  ;  elegiac  stanza,  363  ;  other 
forms,  364. 

Daphne,  decl.,  37;  Daphnis,  64. 

daps,  defective,  77.  5  ;  increment 
of,  350. 

Dates,  how  expressed,  259.  e,  376. 

Dative  defined,  31.  ^  ;  in  abus,  decl. 
I.,  36.  e;  in  ubus,  decl.  IV,,  70.  (/; 
in  i  (of  unus,  etc.),  83 ;  Syntax, 
224-236;  indirect  object,  224;  con- 
.  Hected  with  locative,  id.  N.;  uses 
1^  of,  id. ;  with  transitives,  225 ;  use 
'  of  done,  etc.,  id.  </;  with  intran- 
sitives,  226;  verbs  xnea.mng  favor, 
&c.,  227  ;  verbs  having  dat.  or 
ace,  227.  c ;  with  verbal  nouns, 
id.  (/;  with  comps.  of  satis,  etc., 
id.  e ;  with  comps.  of  preps,  ad, 
ante,  etc.,  228 ;  with  comps.  of 
ab,  de,  ex,  229  ;  poetic  use,  229. 
I  c ;  with  passive  used  imperson- 
ally, 230  ;  of  possession,  231  ; 
with  comps.  of  esse,  id.  a  ;  with 
nomen  est,  id.  b ;  of  agency, 
232  ;  of  service,  233  ;  with  adjs. 
or  adverbs,  234;  with  adjs.  of  fit- 
ness, &c.,  234.  a ;  with  similis, 
id.  R. ;  of  reference,  235  ;  ethical 
dat.,  236 ;  with  words  of  con- 
tention (poetic),  248.  b ;  dat.  of 
gerund,  299.    Note  on,  p.  154. 

de,  use  of,  153;  in  composition 
with  verbs,  with  dat.,  229 ;  posi- 
tion of,  263.  N.;  with  abl.  of  ge- 
rund, 301. 

dea,  decl.,  36.  e. 


debui  with  pres.  inf.,  288.  b,  r. 

decet,  with  ace,  237.  e. 

Declarative  Sentence,  iji.  a. 

Declension  defined,  26;  character- 
istics of,  32;  general  rules  for, 
S3;  terminations,  34;   of  nouns, 

Im  35-37;  II-,  38-43 ;  III.,  44-67; 

IV.,  68-71;  v.,  72-74. 
Decreeing,  verbs  of,  331.  c/. 
dedi,  as  reduplicated  stem,  117.  n.; 

quantity  of  penult,  351.  b. 
Defective   nouns,    75 ;    in   number, 

76 ;  in  case-forms,  77. 
Defective  adjectives,  82.  d,  Sj.f. 
Defective  comparison,  91. 
Defective  verb-forms,  no,  143,  144. 
deficio,  constr.,  227,  a.         [287.  a. 
Definite  perfect,  279 ;   sequence  of, 
Definitions  of  Syntax,  171-181;   of 

figures  in  grammar,  rhetoric,  and 

prosody,  pp.  298-360. 
defit,  142.  c. 

Degree,  adverbs  of,  149.  c. 
Degrees  of  Comparison,  89. 
deinde,  denique,  151.  d. 
delector,  with  abl.  254.  b. 
Delos,  decl.,  43. 
delphin,  decl.,  63.  a. 
Demonstrative  pronouns,  decl.,  lOl ; 

Syntax,  195. 
Demonstrative  adverbs,  207.  a. 
Denarius,  value  of,  377. 
Denominative  verbs,  165.      [265.  b. 
Dependent  clauses,    subj.  used   in. 
Dependent  constructions,  N.,  p.  227. 
Deponent  verbs,  1 1 1 .  N.  2 ;  how  con- 
jugated, 122.  N.;  paradigm,  135; 

used  reflexively,    135.  e;   list  of 

irreg.  deponent  verbs,  135.  '^. 
Depriving,  constr.  with  verbs  of,  243. 
Derivation  of  Words,  157-170. 
Derivative  forms  of  nouns,  162,  163; 

of  adj.,  164;   of  verbs,  166,  167. 


3i6 


Index. 


Derivatives,  quantity  of,  354. 
-des,  nouns  in,  164.  b. 
Description,  imperfect  used,  115.  ^, 

foot-note;   277. 
Desiderative  verbs  (in  -urio),  167.  ^. 
deterior,  comp.  of,  91.  c. 
Determining,  verbs  of,  331.  d. 
deus.  comparison  of,  40./. 
dexter,  decL,  82.  b  ;  comp.,  90. 
Diaeresis,  358.  c. 
Diastole,  359./. 
die,  imperative,  128,  c. 
-dicus,  adjs.  ending  in,  comparison 

of,  89.  c. 
Dido,  decl.,  63.  h,  64. 
dies,  decl.,  72;  gender,  73;  form 

dii,  74.  a. 
Difference,  abl.  of,  250. 
difficilis,  comparison,  89.  b. 
dignor,  with  abl.,  245.  a. 
dignus,   with   abl.,   245.  a  \    with 

relative  clause,  320./. 
Dimeter,  Iambic  verse,  366.  c. 
Diminutive  endings,  with  compara- 
tives, 89.  /;  nouns  and  adjectives, 

164.  a\  verbs,  167.  d. 
Diphthongs,  i;   sound  of,  16,  17; 

quantity,  1 8.  by  347.  b. 
Diptotes,  77.  3. 
Direct  cases,  31.  N. 
Direct  object,  177,  237. 
Direct  quotation,  335.  and  R. 
dis-,  inseparable  prefix,  170.  b. 
Disjunctive  conjunctions,  155.  A. 
Dissimilation,  il.  ^. 
dissirnilis,  comparison,  89.  b. 
Distance,  ace.  or  abl.,  257.  b. 
Distributive  numerals,  95. 
dives,  decl.,  85.  b,  87.  d. 
divum,  for  deorum,  40./. 
do,  with  infmitive,  273.  a. 
-do,  nouns  in,  from  stem  din-,  48./^; 

gender  of,  65.  b. 


domi,  locative,  258.  d. 

domus,  decl.,  70.  /;  double  stem 

of,  78.  foot-note, 
donee,  327;  with  subj.,  328. 
dono,  double  constr.  of,  225.  d. 
Double  consonants,  3. 
Double  questions,  211. 
Doubtful  gender,  30.  a. 
Dual  forms,  94.  a,  foot-note. 
Dubitative  subj.,  268;    in  indirect 

questions,  334.  b. 
dubito  an,  210./  r.;    non  dubito 

quin,  332.  g,  R. 
due,  imperative,  128.  c. 
dum,  with  present,  276.  e ;    with 

clause  for  pres.  partic,  290.  r,  d\ 

subjunctive  of  proviso,  314,  328; 

of  time,  327 ;  of  purpose,  328. 
dummodo,  314,  328. 
duo,  decl.,  94.  b. 
Duration,  ace.  of,  240.  <?,  256 ;  abl. 

of,  256.  b. 
-dus,  participle  in.    See  Gerundive, 
dux,  decl.,  46. 

E,  inserted  in  decl.  II.,  42 ;  abl.  of 
neuters  in,  57. «,  3  ;  final,  quantity 
of,  348.  5 ;  <?,  stem-vowel,  conj.  II., 
122,  123.  <7,  126,  ^;  ^,  stem-vowel, 
conj.  III.,  122,  123.  b,  126.  c. 

e  (preposition) .     See  ex. 

Early  forms  of  alphabet,  p.  3;  of 
prosody,  p.  292. 

ecce  (eccum,  etc.),  loi.  d, 

ecquis,  decl.,  105.  </,  1. 

Ecthlipsis,  359.  d. 

edo  (eat),  conj.,  140. 

Effecting,  verbs  of,  with  pcrf.  part., 
292.  d ;  with  ut-clause,  332.  //. 

effieri,  142.  c. 

Effort,  verbs  of,  with  perf.  part., 
292.  d\  with  clause  of  result, 
331.  *?. 


Index, 


317 


I 


egens,  decl.,  85. 

egeo,  constr.,  223,  243./ 

ego,  decl.,  98. 

ei,  diphthong,  i;  sound  of,  16,  17.  <:, 

-eis,  patronymic,  164.  b. 

-eius,  in  Prosody,  347.  a,  4. 

ejusmodi,  loi.  e,  215.  a. 

Elegiac  stanza,  363. 

elephans,  63.  e. 

-elis,  -enus,  adj.-endings,  164.  d,  c. 

Elision,  359.  r.      Ellipsis,  177.  N. 

Emphasis,  as  affected  by  order  of 
words,  344  ;  in  arrangement  of 
clauses,  345.  ^,/  [348.1. 

Enclitics,  accent,    19.  <: ;    quantity, 

Endings,  signification,  161-167. 

English  derivatives  from  Latin, 
spelling  of,  15. 

English  method  of  pronunciation, 
17;   when  to  be  used,  id.  N. 

enim,  156.  d,  k;  position,  345.  b. 

ens,  part,  of  esse,  119.  foot-note. 

-ensis,  gentile  ending,  164.  c. 

eo  (irreg.  verb),  conj.,  141  ;  used 
with  supine  in  um,  258.  R.,  302.  R. 

eo  .  .  .  quo  —  the  .  .  .  the,  106.  c ; 
with  compar.,  250.  R. 

Epicene  nouns,  30.  b. 

Epistolary  tenses,  282, 

-er  (nom.  ending),  decl.  II.,  41,  42 ; 
decl.  III.,  48.  <r,  51.3,  54.  foot- 
note, 67. /5;  ofadjectives,  82, 84.  d-. 

ergo,  156.  e;  with  gen.,  214.  g: 

-erim,  -ero,  as  tense-ending,  118. 
foot-note.  [note. 

ES,  root  of  esse,  11.  a  ;   p.  67,  foot- 

-es,  genitive  of  nouns  in  (decl.  II.), 
43.  a;  list  of  nouns,  51.  foot-note. 

-6s,  nom.  plur.  of  Gr.  nouns,  63.  /; 
gender  of  nouns  in,  65. 

escit,  119.  R. 

esse,  conj.,  119;  comparative  forms 
of,  in  other  languages,  119.  foot- 


note ;  compounds  of,  120  ;  case 
after,  176.  b  ;  dat.  of  poss.  with, 
231;  fut.  part,  used  with,  293.  a, 
c  ;   position  of  forms  of,  343.  b. 

-esso,  verbs  ending  in,  167.  c. 

est  (is),  with  other  words,  13.  b. 

est  qui,  320.  a ;  est  cum,  322.  r.; 
est  ut,  332.  a. 

et,  156.  a;   et .  .  .  et,  156.  h. 

etenim,  156.  d. 

Ethical  dat.,  236, 

etiam,  151.  a;  in  answers,  212.  a. 

etsi,  156.  i,  313.  e. 

-etum,  noun-ending,  164.  i. 

Etymology,  1-170. 

Euphonic  change,  9  ;  vowels,  10; 
consonants,  11. 

evenit,  synopsis,  145. 

ex,  152.  b,  153,  260.  b,  244.  a,  R.; 
in  compounds,  170.  a,  243.  b,  2. 

Exchanging,  verbs  of,  252.  <:. 

Exclamations,  ace.  in,  240.  d;  with 
infin.,  274. 

Exclamatory  Sentences,  171,  c. 

Existence,  general  expr.  of,  320.  a.. 

Expecting,  hoping,  &c.,  verbs  of, 
with  infin.  clause,  330./. 

exsulare,  136.  b. 

exterior,  gi.  a. 

exuo,  constr.,  225.  d. 

Fac,  imperative,  128.  c,  142. 
facere  ut,  332,  e. 
facilis,  comparison,  89.  b. 
facio,    conj.,    142;    compounds  of, 

id.  a,  i6g.  a  ;  with  abl.,  244.  d. 
-facto  in  compounds,  169.  a. 
fames,  abl.  of,  57,  c. 
fari,  144.  c. 

fas,  with  supine  in  u,  303. 
Favor,  verbs  of,  with  dat.,  227, 
faxim,  faxo,  142. 
Fearing,  verbs  of  (ne  or  ut),  331./. 


3i8 


Index. 


Feeling,  nouns  of,  with  gen.,  217; 

impersonal  verbs  of,  146./^;  gen. 

with   verbs   of,    221  ;    ace.   with, 

237.  b\   with  quod-clause,  333.  b. 
Feet  in  Prosody,  355-357;  N.,  p.  274. 
Feminine,  rule  for  gender,  29. 
-fer,  compounds  of,  41. 
fer,  imperative,  128.  c. 
fero,  conj.,  139. 

Festivals,  plural  names  of,  76.  i. 
-ficus,  adjs.  in,  comparison  of,  89.  c. 
fides,  decl.,  72, 
fido(confido),  semi-deponent,  136; 

with  abl.,  254.  b. 
fieri,  constr.  with  abl.,  244.  d. 
Fifth  declension,  'J2-'j^. 
filia,  decl.,  36.  e. 

Filling,  words  of,  with  abl.,  248.  c. 
Final  Clauses  defined,  180.  ^ ;  constr. 

of,  317,  318;  as  subst.  clause,  331. 
Final  conjunctions,  155.  h. 
Final  syllables,  rules  of  quantity,  348 ; 

vowels,  id.  1-8. 
fio,  conj.,  142 ;  in  compounds,  id.  b\ 

defective    compounds   of,   id.  c ; 

quantity  of  i  in,  347.  «,  3. 
First  declension,  35-37. 
First  conjugation,  formation,  126.  a  ; 

paradigms,  pp.  76-79  ;    verbs  of, 

1 30 ;  verbs  of,  how  formed,  166.  a. 
fisus,  as  pres.  part.,  290.  b. 
flocci,  gen.  of  value,  252.  b. 
For,  when  expressed  by  pro,  236.  k. 
fore,  fore  ut,  147.  c,  288./,  332.  <f. 
forem,  119.  r. 
foris  (locative),  258.  d. 
Formation  of  words,  157-170. 
forsitan  (fors  sit  an),  148.  N.  6, 

311.  a. 
Fourth  Conjugation,  formation,  126. 

d;  paradigm,  p.  86 ;  list  of  verbs, 

133 ;   verbs,  how  formed,  166.  d. 
Fourth  Declension,  68-71. 


Fractional  expressions,  97.  d,  382. 

Freedom,  adjs.  of,  with  abl.,  243.  d. 

Frequentative  verbs,  167.  b,  foot- 
note. 

French,  derivations  through,  15.  foot- 
note. 

fretus,  with  abl.,  254.  b. 

Fricatives,  3. 

frugi,  comparison,  90. 

fruor,  fungor,  with  abl.,  249. 

fuam  (sim),  119.  r. 

fui,  derivation  of,  119.  foot-note. 

Future  Conditions,  307. 

Future  Tense,  use,  115.  <z,  i;  of 
infinitive  pass.,  how  formed,  147. 
c;  indicative  for  imper.,  264.  r, 
269.  /;  of  imperative,  269.  d; 
uses  of,  278  ;  in  indirect  ques- 
tions, 334.  a. 

Future  Perfect,  115.  a,  i  ;  use  of, 
281 ;  repre:  inted  in  subj.,  286.  R. ; 
in  conditions,  307.  c. 

Future  Infinitive  expressed  with  fore 
or  futurum  esse,  288.  / 

Future  Participle,  290,  293,  308.  d. 

Futurum  in  prater ito^  p.  214,  foot- 
note. 

fuvimus,  fuvisset,  119.  r. 

G  =  C  in  early  use,  6. 

Games,  plural  names  of,  76.  i. 

gaudeo,  conj.,  136;  with  abl.,  254.  b. 

Gems,  gender  of,  29,  39.  a. 

Gender,  kinds  of,  28 ;  general  rules 
for,  29 ;  gend.  nouns,  decl.  I.,  35 ; 
decl.  II.,  39;  gend.  nouns,  decl. 
III.  according  to  endings,  65; 
according  to  stems,  66 ;  of  nouns, 
decl.  IV.,  69 ;  Syntax,  agreement 
in  gend.,  181 ;  of  appositives, 
184.^;  of  adjs.,  186;  ofrel.,199.^. 

General  truths  after  past  tense  (in 
sequence  of  tenses),  287.  d. 


Index. 


319 


Genitive  defined,  31.  3;  termina- 
tions of,  32  ;  plural  in  um,  ZZ-f\ 
in  ai  and  as,  decl.  I.,  36.  a^b\  in 
i  for  ii,  decl.  II.,  40.  b;  gen.  plur. 
in  um  for  orum,  40.  e\  um  for 
ium,  decl.  III.,  59;  6s  for  is, 
63.  /;  contracted  in  decl.  IV., 
68.  N.;  gen.  plur.  in  um,  70.  c\ 
in  i  or  e  for  ei,  decl.  V.,  74.  a ; 
of  adjs.  in  ius,  83 ;  gen.  plur.  in 
ium  or  um,  87.  c,  d\  Syntax, 
213-223;  subjective  gen.,  214; 
gen.  in  predicate,  214.  c\  gen.  of 
adj.  for  neut.  nom.,  214.  r.;  gen. 
of  substance  or  material,  214.  e\ 
for  appositive,  214.  /;  gen.  of 
quality,  215;  partitive,  216;  ob- 
jective gen.,  217;  with  adjectives, 
218 ;  with  verbs  of  memory,  219; 
charge  and  penalty,  220 ;  of  feel- 
ing, 221 ;  with  impers.,  mise- 
ret,  etc.,  221.  b\  with  refert  and 
interest,  222;  of  plenty  and  want, 
223 ;  with  potior,  id.  a ;  with 
egeo  and  indigeo,  243.  /;  gen. 
for  abl.,  id.y^  R.;  of  value,  215.  <r, 
252.  a,  b ;  gen.  of  gerundive,  298. 

Gentile  adjectives,  164.  c. 

genu,  decl.,  68,  69.  b. 

-ger,  compounds  in,  41. 

Gerund,  forms  of,  109.  b;  use  of, 
1 14  ;  Syntax  of,  295-301 ;  gen., 
298;  dat.of,  299;  ace,  300;  abl., 
301 ;   comp.  with  gerundive,  296. 

Gerundive,  meaning  of,  109.  ^,  foot- 
note ;  113.  d;  of  dep.  verbs, 
135.  i/;  use  of,  294;  ofutor,  id. 
c ;  to  denote  purpose  after  certain 
verbs,  id.  d;  used  for  the  gerund, 
296;  gerundive  constructions  in 
cases,  297-301. 

glorior,  abl.  with,  254.  b. 

Glyconic  verse,  369,  370,  371.  i,  12. 


Gnomic  perfect,  279.  c. 

-go,  nouns  in,  from  stem  gin-,  48. 

(J;,  gender  of,  65.  b.  [118. 

Grammar,  how  developed,  pp.  117, 
Grammatical  gender,  28.  c. 
gratia,  with  gen.,  214.^;  245.  c. 
Greek  forms  compared  with  Latin, 

see  Notes,  pp.  37,  38,  40,  46,  64, 

67,  107,  113,  131,  172,217,71,91. 
Greek  nouns,  decl.  I.,  37 ;  decl.  II., 

43 ;  decl.  III.,  63,  64. 
Greek  proper  names,  quantity   of, 

347-  «.  5- 

H  (aspirate),  i.  N.;  omission  of, 
12.  b;  in  Prosody,  347.  a ;  359.  c. 

habeo  (imperative),  meaning  con- 
sider, 269.  e ;  with  infinitive,  273. 
a ;  with  perf.  part.,  292.  c. 

hactenus,  260.  N, 

Hadria,  gender,  35. 

Happening,  verbs  of,  constr.,  332.  a. 

have  (ave),  defective  verb,  144./. 

Help,  verbs  of,  with  dat.,  227. 

Hemiolic  measures,  356.  d. 

Heroic  verse,  362. 

heros,  decl.,  64. 

Heteroclite  nouns,  78;  adjs.,  87./ 

Heterogeneous  nouns,  79. 

Hexameter  verse,  362. 

Hiatus,  359.  e. 

hie,  stem,  100. foot-note;  decl.,  loi ; 
use,  102.  a  ;  quantity,  348.  10,  Ex. 

hiemps  (for  hiems),  11,  <:,  67.  c. 

Himself  {y^s^,  se),  102.  N. 

Hindering,  verbs  of,  with  ne  or 
quominus,  331.  e. 

Hindrance,  verbs  of,  with  quomi- 
nus, 319.  c;  with  negatives,  fol- 
lowed by  quin,  id.  d\   332.  g. 

Historical  infinitive,  275. 

Historical  present,  276.  d;  followed 
by  secondary  tefises,  287.  e. 


320 


Index. 


Historical  perfect,  115.  c^  279. 
Hoping,    verbs  'of,   with    infinitive 

clause,  330./. 
Horace,  metres  of,  pp.  287-291. 
horizon,  decl,,  63.  d. 
Hortatory  subj.,  266. 
hospita  (fern,  of  hospes),  85.  c. 
hujusmodi,  loi.  e. 
humi,  locative  use  of,  258.  d, 

I,  consonant  use  of  (J),  4. 

i  (single)  in  gen.  of  nouns  in  ius,* 

ium,  40.  b  ;  gen.  of  nouns  in  es, 

43.  a. 
i-stems,  decl.  HI.,  51-58  ;   signs  of, 

55;  in  adjectives,  81.  foot-note, 

84  ;   cases  retaining  i,  id.  b. 
i  suppressed  (as  in  obicit),  10.  d. 
i,  nouns  (decl.  HI.)  having  abl.  in, 

57- 
i  of  perfect  stem,  118.  foot-note. 
-ia,  nom.  and  ace.  plur.,  decl.  HI., 

55.  <^ ;  —  for  -ies,  decl.  V.,  74.  b. 
-ia,  abstract  nouns  in,  163.  e. 
Iambic  verse,  360;   trimeter,  365; 

other  forms,  366. 
Iambus,  356.  a. 

-ibam  for  -iebam,  conj.  IV.,  128.  e^. 
ic-  as  stem-ending,  45.  c. 
Ictus,  355.  R. ;   358.  a. 
-icus,  -icius,  164.  Cy  h. 
id  quod,  200.  e. 
id  temporis,  216.  </,  3  ;  240.  b. 
idcirco,  as  correl.,  156.  e,  317.  a. 
idem,  decl.,  loi ;  derivation,  100.  c ; 

use,  195.  <:,  e. 
Ides  (13th  or  15th  of  month),  how 

reckoned,  376.  b. 
-ides  in  patronymics,  164.  b. 
idoneus,  comparison,  89.  d. 
idoneus  qui,  320.  / 
Idus,  decl.  IV.,  gender,  69.  a' 
-iduB,  verbal  ending,  164.  /. 


iens  (part,  of  eo),  decl.,  85.  b. 
-ier  in  infinitive  pass.,  128.  c. 
-ies,  in  decl.  V.  —  ia,  decl.  I.,  74.  b; 

are  a-stems,  id.,  foot-note, 
igitur,  meaning,  156.^;  position  of, 

-ii,  in  gen.,  decl.  II.,  40.  b,  foot- 
note ;   of  adjs.,  81.  a. 

-ilis,  -lie,  nominal  adjective-end- 
ing, 164.  d. 

-ilis,  -bXlis,verbal  adjective-ending, 
164.  m. 

Illative  conjunctions,  155.  c. 

ille,  decl.,  loi ;  use,  102.  b ;  com- 
bined with  -ce,  loi.  a. 

illic,  decl.,  loi.  a. 

-illo,  verbs  ending  in,  167.  d. 

-im,  accus.  ending,  decl.  HI.,  55, 56. 

-im  in  pres.  subj.,  128.  e,  2. 

imber,  decl.,  51.  <^,  54.  i,  67.  a. 

immane  quantum,  334.  e. 

immo,  how  used,  209.  d. 

Imperative  mood,  tenses  of,  1 10.  c  ; 
how  used,  H2.  c ;  terminations, 
116.  by  126.  g ',  in  commands, 
269  ;  forms  in  indirect  discourse, 

339- 

Imperative  Sentence,  171.  d. 

Imperfect  tense,  115.  a,  2',  distin 
guished  from  perfect,  id.  b  ;  use. 
of,  277. 

Impersonal  Verbs,  synopsis  of,  145  ; 
classified,  146  ;  passive  of  intran- 
sitives,  146.  c ;  impersonals,  mi- 
seret,  etc.,  with  gen.,  221.  b ', 
libet,  licet,  with  dat.,  227.  e  ; 
accus.  with  decet,  etc.,  237.  f. 

Impure  syllables,  14.  c. 

in,  prep.,  152.  ^;  use  of,  153;  as 
prefix,  170.  a,  c  ;  in,  with  ace.  or 
abl.,  259. /(compare  260.  a). 

Inceptive  or  inchoative  verljs,  167.  a. 

Inclination,  adjs.  of,  constr.,  234.  c. 


Index. 


321 


Incomplete  action,  tenses  of.  See 
Continued. 

Increment,  defined,  349.  fli;  of  nouns 
and  adjs.,  350 ;   of  verbs,  35 1 . 

Indeclinable  nouns,  gender  of,  29.  c ; 
list  of,  77.  I. 

Indefinite  pronouns,  104,  105  ;  syn- 
tax, 202,  203 ;  indef.  relative  may 
introduce  conditional  clause,  304. 
a,  N.,  316. 

Indefinite  subject  omitted,  206.  b-, 
use  of  2d  person  for,  266.  a ;  in 
general  conditions,  309.  a. 

Indicative  mood,  how  used,  112.  a, 
264 ;  in  apod,  of  conditions  con- 
trary to  fact,  308.  b,  c;  311.  c; 
in  clause  with  quod,  333. 

indigeo,  with  gen.,  223,  243.  / 

indignus,  with  abl.,  245.  a. 

Indirect  Cases,  31.  N. 

Indirect  Discourse,  p.  247.  N.,  335- 
342 ;  quotation,  direct  or  indirect, 
335  ;  indirect  narrative,  336 ;  con- 
ditions in,  337;  questions  in,  338; 
commands  in,  339;  subordinate 
clauses,  340-342. 

Indirect  questions,  210.  /  N.,  334 
(see  Note,  p.  245). 

Indirect  object,  224.  and  N.,  225, 
227.  N. 

Indo-European  forms,  1 19.  foot-note. 

induo,  double  constr.  of,  225.  d. 

inferior,  comparison,  91.  a. 

Infinitive  clauses,  272,  330. 

Infinitives  used  as  nouns,  gender, 
29.  c;  with  gen.,  214.  d. 

Infinitive  mood,  108.  b;  tenses  of, 
no.  d;  how  used,  112.  d;  subject 
in  ace,  240./;  Syntax,  270-275  ; 
used  as  subject,  270;  comple- 
mentary use  of,  271 ;  verbs  hav- 
ing subj.  or  infin.,  id.  a;  with 
subject  ace,  272;  case  of  predi- 


cate, id.  b ;  of  purpose,  273  ; 
with  adjs.  in  poetry,  id.  d;  with 
exclamations,  274;  historical  in- 
finitive, 275  ;  tenses  of,  288 ;  fut. 
infin.  with  fore,  id./;  in  indirect 
discourse,  336.    Note  on,  p.  191. 

infit,  142.  c. 

Inflection,  defined,  20 ;  terminations 
of,  20.  b ;  how  modified,  24 ;  of 
declension  and  conjugation,  26. 

Influence,  verbs  of,  with  ut-clause, 

33^-  a- 

infra,  use  of,  153. 

injussu  (defective),  71.  ^. 

inquam,  inquit,  144.  b;  position 
of,  345.  c. 

Inseparable  particles,  170.  b. 

Insertion  of  consonants  (p  in  sump- 
si),  II.  c. 

inspergo,  constr.  of,  225.  d. 

instar,  with  gen.,  214.^. 

Instrument,  abl.  of,  248. 

Intensive  pronouns,  100,  195./-/. 

Intensive  verbs,  167.  b. 

inter,  use  of,  153  ;  inter  se  (recip- 
rocal), 99.  d,  196./ 

intercludo,  interdico,  225.  d. 

interest,  construction  of,  222  ;  with 
ad,  id.  b. 

interfieri,  142.  c. 

interior,  comparison,  91. 

Interjections,  def.,  25.  -^;  list,  p.  105. 

Interlocked  order  of  words,  344.  /i. 

Intermediate  Clauses,  Syntax  of,  p. 
251.  N.;  340-342. 

Interrogative  particles,  list  of,  149.  d. 

Interrogative  pronouns,  104,  105. 

Interrogative  Sentence,  171.  b; 
forms  of,  210-212. 

Intransitive  verbs,  175, 176.N.;  dat. 
with,  226. 

-io,  noun-ending,  163.  b. 

-io,  verb-ending,  conj.  III.,  123.  b,  2, 


322 


Index. 


\2(i.c\  paradigm, p.  83 ;  conj.IV., 
126,  d;   derivation,  166.  d. 

Ionic  measure,  356.  c;  verse,  372. 16, 

ip-  as  stem-ending,  45,  a. 

ipse,  decl.,  \o\.a\  use,  102.  </and 
N.,  I95-/-^- 

iri,  in  fut.  infin,  pass.,  141,  147.  c. 

Irrational  measures,  356.  N.,  369.  N. 

is,  decl.,  loi  ;  use,  102.  d\  used 
emphatically,  195.  c. 

-Is  (-eis),  nom.  and  ace.  plur., 
decl.  III.,  58 ;  of  adjs.,  84.  b,  87.  c. 

Islands,  names  of,  loc.  use,  258.  r,  R. 

-isse,  -issem,  verb-ending,  118, 
foot-note. 

iste,  decl.,  loi.  a\  use,  102.  c. 

istic,  decl.,  loi.  a.  [p.  95. 

IT  as  sign  of  Impersonals,  foot-note, 

it-  as  stem-ending,  45.  b. 

Italian  dialects.  Appendix,  p.  303. 

itaque,  accent,  19.  c\  compared  with 
ergo,  156.  ^  ;  position  of,  345.  b. 

iter,  stem  of,  60.  c,  78.  foot-note. 

Iterative  verbs  (-to,  -ito,  -so), 1 67.  b. 

-ium,  noun-ending,  163./. 

-ium,  gen.  plur.,  decl.  III.,  55.  a\ 
of  adjs.,  84.  b,  85,  87.  c. 

-ius,  gen,  sing,  ending,  83 ;  quan- 
tity, id.  foot-note,  347.  «,  i. 

-ius,  adj.  ending,  164.  h^  m. 

J  (semi-vowel),  4. 

jam,  151.  b. 

jecur,decl.,  Co.r;  stem,78.  foot-note. 

jubeo,  with  ace,  227./? ;  with  infin., 

271-  ^  330-  2,/^,  33»-  «• 
jugerum,  381. 

Julian  Calendar,  N.,  p.  294;  376.  f. 
jungo,  with  abl.  or  dat.,  248.  «,  R. 
Juppiter,  stem  and  decl.,  60.  b. 
jussu  (defective),  71.  ^. 
juvenis,  how  compared,  91.  b. 
juvo,  with  ace,  227.  a. 


K,  supplanted  by  C,  6. 

Kalends,  376.  a. 

Kindred  forms,  Latin  and  English, 

15.     (See  Appendix.) 
Knowing,  verbs  of,  constr.  with  ace. 

and  infin.,  272,  330.  i. 

Labials,  2 ;  stems  (decl.  III.),  45. «  ; 
gender,  66.  c ;  forms  of  inflection, 
67... 

lacus,  decl.,  68 ;  dat.  and  abl.  plur. 
in  -ubus,  70.  d. 

laedo,  constr.  with  ace,  227,  a. 

laetor,  laetus,  with  abl.,  254.  b. 

lampas,  decl.,  64. 

lateo,  with  ace,  239.  d. 

latifundium,  168.  b. 

Latin  Language,  origin  and  com- 
parative forms  of;  earliest  forms; 
languages  derived  from  :  see  Ap- 
pendix (pp.  301-305). 

latus  (part.),  derivation,  139.  foot- 
note. 

Letters,  Classification  of,  1-5. 

Liber,  decl,,  41.  c. 

libet,  impers.,i46.</;  with  dat.,  227.^. 

licet,  impers.,  synopsis,  145 ;  use, 
146.  d;  with  dat.,  227.  c,  with 
predicate  dat.,  272.  a  ;  with  subj., 
meaning  although,  313.  b. 

Likeness,  adjs.  of,  with  gen.,  218.  d\ 
with  dat.,  234.  a. 

Limiting  word,  meaning  of,  178.  b. 

Linguals,  2 ;  stems  of,  decl.  III., 
45.  b'y  gender  of,  66.  d\  forms 
of  inflection,  67.  d. 

Liquids,  2 ;  stems  of,  decl.  III.,  48 ; 
gender  of,  66,  ^ ;  forms  of  inflec- 
tion, 67,  b. 

Litotes,  209.  c. 

11-,  as  stem  ending,  48.  e. 

Locative  abl.,  254;  idiomatic  use, 
id.  a ;   adverbial  forms,  148.  N.  5. 


Index. 


323 


Locative  form,  31.  >^ ;  of  decl.  I.,  36. 
c-y  decl.  II.,  40;  decl.  III.,  62; 
decl.  IV.  (domi),  70.  f,  foot- 
note ;  decl.  v.,  74.  c ;  as  adverb, 
148.  S;  with  abl.  in  apposition, 
184.  c\  relative  adverb  used  to 
refer  to,  201./;  compared  v^^ith 
dat.,  224.  N. ;  locative  used  to 
express  where^  254,  258.  ^;  do- 
mi, etc.,  id.  d. 

loco,  without  prepos.,  258.  y] 

Logaoedic  verse,  369-371.  Note  on, 
p.  284. 

longius,  without  quam,  247.  c. 

M,  final,  elision  of,  359.  b,  R.,  d. 
-m,  (verb-ending),  lost,  116.   foot- 
note 3. 
magis,  as  signs  of  comparative,  89. 

d\    compounds  of,  with  quam, 

262.  N. 
magni,  gen.  of  value,  215.  ^,  252.  a. 
magnus,  comparison,  90. 
majestatis,  with  words  of  accusing, 

&c.,  220.  a. 
majores,  signification  of,  93.  /. 
male,   compounds    of,    with    dat., 

227.  e. 
malo,  conj.,  138. 
mialus,  comparison,  90. 
maneo,  with  abl.,  254.  b. 
mansuetus,  159.  c. 
manus,  decl.,  68 ;  gender,  69. 
Manner,  abl.  of,  248.  and  R. 
mare,  decl.,  52. 
Masculines,  rule  for  gender,  29. 
Masculine  adjectives,  88.  b. 
Masculine  caesura,  362.  r. 
Material,  adjectives  denoting,  164.^; 

gen.  of,  214.  e\  abl.  of,  244.  c. 
maxime,  as  sign  of  superl.,  89.  d. 
May  (potential),  how  expressed  in 

Latin,  112.  N. 


Means,  abl.  of,  248.  and  c. 

Measure,  gen.  of,  215.  b. 

Measures  in  Prosody,  355-357 ; 
names  of,  356 ;  contracted  or  re- 
solved, 357. 

Measures  of  value,  377-380;  of 
length,  381;  of  weight,  382 ;  of 
capacity,  383. 

medeor,  medicor,  with  dat.  or  ace, 
227.  b. 

Meditative  verbs,  167.  c. 

medius  {middle  part  of^,  193. 

melior,  decl.,  86. 

melius  est,  with  infin.,  288.  e. 

memini,  conj.,  143.  c;  imper.  of 
269.  e ;  for  pres.,  143.  n.,  279.  d,  r.; 
with  pres.  infin.,  288.  b. 

Memory,  verbs  of,  constr.,  219. 

-men,  -mentum,  noun-endings, 
163.  c. 

-met  (enclitic),  99./ 

Metathesis,  11.  d,  124.  a,  N. 

Metre,  see  Prosody. 

metuo,  with  dat.  or  ace,  227.  c. 

metus,  with  dat.  or  ace,  227.  c. 

meus  (voc,  mi),  40.  c,  81.  a,  99.  a ; 
syntax  of,  197.  a,  214.  a. 

Mile,  English  feet  in,  381. 

miles,  decl.,  46. 

militiae  (locative),  258.  d. 

mille,  decl.  and  constr.,  94.  e. 

-mini,  as  personal  ending,  118. 
foot-note. 

minime,  compar.,92;  signif.,  209.^; 
in  answer  ("no"),  212.  a. 

minoris,  gen.  of  value,  215.  c,  252.  a. 

minores,  signification,  93./. 

minus,  compar.,  92;  with  si  and 
quo,  =  not,  209.  e ;  constr.  with- 
out quam,  247.  c. 

-minus,  -mnus,  verbal  adjective- 
endings,  164.  n, 

miror  si,  333.  r. 


324 


Index. 


minim  quam,  210.  f,  r.,  334.  <?. 
misceo  with  abl.  or  dat.,  248.  a,  R. 
miser,  decl.,  82. 
misereor,  with  gen.,  221.  a. 
miseret,    146.   b;    with   gen.   and 

ace,  221.  b. 
Modern  languages  compared  with 

Latin.     See  Appendix. 
Modification  of  subj,  orpred.,  178. 
Modifiers,   position   of,  343.   c,  d\ 

344.  d;  of  negative,  345.  d. 
modo  with  subjunctive  of  proviso^ 

266.  d,  314. 
moneo,  conj.,  p.  80.  [163.  c. 

-monia,  -monium,  noun-endings, 
Monoptotes,  77.  2. 
Monosyllables,  quantity,  348.  1-3. 
Months,  gender  of  names  of,  29.  a ; 

names  of  in  -ber,  84.  a  ;  divisions 

of,  in  Roman  Calendar,  376. 
Moods,  names   and  uses  of,   112; 

note  on  origin  and  nature  of,  p. 

184;   Syntax  of,  264-275. 
Mora,  in  Prosody,  355.  a. 
Motion,  how  expressed,  225.  ^,  229.  a, 

243.  b\  indicated  by  compounds, 

237.  d\  when  implied,  259.  g,  h. 
Motive,  how  expressed,  245.  b. 
Mountains,  names  of,  gender,  29.  a. 
Multiplication  by  distributives,  95.  c. 
Multiplicatives,  97. 
multus,  comparison,  90. 
mus,  decl.,  54. 
Musical  accent,  358. 
Mutes,  3;   mute-stems,    decl.   III., 

44-50 ;   apparent,  47.  a,  54. 
Mythos,  decl.,  43. 

N  as  final  letterof  stem(leon-),48.rt. 
n  inserted  in  verb-root   (frango), 

123.  f,  3;   124.  b^  N.;  adulter i- 

num^  2.  N. 
nais,  decl.,  64. 


-nam  (enclitic)  in  questions,  210./ 

nam,  namque,  use,  156.  d. 

Names  of  men  and  women,  80. 

Naming,  verbs  of,  with  two  aces.,  185, 
239.  a. 

natus,  etc.,  with  abl.,  244,  a. 

-ndus,  verbal  ending,  164.  0. 

-ne  (enclitic),  use  in  questions,  210. 
a-d.  211;  in  exclamations,  332. 
c ;   quantity,  348.  i . 

ne,  with  subjunctive  of  proviso,  266. 
d\  in  prohibitions,  269,  a\  in  final 
clauses,  317;  =nedum,  317.  r.; 
in  substantive  clauses,  with  verbs 
of  caution,  &c.,  331 .  <? ;  of  fearing, 
331./;  omitted  after  cave,  id.  R. 

Nearness,  adjs.  of,  with  dat.,  234,  a. 

nee  enim,  156.  d. 

Necessity,  verbs  of,  with  perf.  pass, 
inf., 288. fl^;  withut-clause,33i.<r. 

necne  in  double  questions,  211. 

nedum,  317.  c.  r. 

nefas,  with  latter  supine,  303. 

Negation,  perfect  preferred  in,  279.  d. 

Negative  particles,  149.  e ;  two  neg- 
atives, 150 ;  use  of,  209  ;  neg.  an- 
swers, 212;  purpose,  317;  result, 
319.  Uy  d,  R.;   position  of,  345.  d. 

nego,  better  than  dico  .  .  .  non, 
209.  b,  336  (3d  quotation). 

nemo,  use  of,  202.  /;  nemo  non, 
150.  b. 

neque  (nee),  and  noiy  156.  a. 

nequam,  comparison  of,  90. 

nequeo,  conj.,  144.  g. 

ne  . . .  quidem,  151.  e;  after  non, 
209.  a  ;  position  of,  345.  b ;  after 
non  modo,  149.  e. 

nequis,  105.  d. 

nescio  an,  210.  y^  r. 

nescio  quis,  210./  r.;  as  indefi- 
nite without  subj.,  334.  e. 

Neuter  adjs.,  special  uses  of,  189. 


Index. 


325 


Neuter  gender,  general  rule  for,  29. 
c\  cases  alike  in,  33.  b\  endings 
of  deal.  III.,  65.  c. 

Neuter  passives,  136. 

Neuter  verbs,  175,  176;  with  cog- 
nate ace,  238;  having  passive 
sense,  with  ab,  246.  a. 

Neutral  passives,  136.  b. 

ni,  nisi,  304.  N.;   use  of,  315.  a. 

niger,  decl.,  82  ;  dist.  from  ater, 
89.  e,  N. 

oihili,  gen.  of  value,  252.  b. 

nimirum  quam,  used  as  indefinite 
without  subj,,  334.  e. 

ningit,  146.  a. 

nisi  and  si  non,  315.  a. 

nisi  vero,  nisi  forte,  315.  b. 

nitor,  with  abl.,  254.  b. 

nix  (stem  and  decl.),  45.  f,  foot-note. 

noli,  in  prohibitions,  269.  a. 

nolo,  conj.,  138;  part.,  as  dat.  of 
reference,  235.  c. 

nomen,  decl.,  49 ;  nomen^  denoting 
gens,  80.  a, 

nomen  est,  with  pred.  dat.,  231 .  <^,  c. 

Nominal  adjectives,  164. 

Nominative  defined,  31.  a;  how 
formed  from  stem,  32.  b ;  in  decl. 
II.,  N.,  p.  16  ;  in  decl.  III.,  44,  45, 
48;  of  neuters,  i-stems,  51.  c, 
in  u-stems,  decl.  IV.,  p.  30,  N. ; 
in  e-stems,  decl.  V.,  p.  32,  n.; 
Syntax  :  as  subject,  173  ;  in  pred- 
icate, 176.  b,  185  ;  verb-agree- 
ment with,  204;  used  for  vocative, 
241.  a;  with  opus  in  predicate, 
243.  e,  R. 

non,  compounds  of,  150.  a,  b;  in 
answers,  212.  a. 

non  dubito  quin,  319.  ^;  332.  g;  r. 

non  .  .  .  non  modo,  209.  a. 

non  modo . . .  ne . . .  quidem,  149.  <f. 

nonne,  210.  c. 


non  nemo,  non  nullus,  etc.,  150. 

non  quia,  non  quod,  non  quo, 
non  quin,  341.  d,  r. 

Nones  (nonae),  376.  c. 

Normal  order  of  words,  343;  changed 
for  emphasis,  344. 

noster,  for  poss.  gen.,  99.  a,  197.  a. 

nostri,  as  objective  gen.,  99.  c,  194.  b. 

nostrum,  as  partitive  gen.,  99.  b, 
194.  b. 

novi  =  present,  143.  n.  ;   279.  d,  r. 

Nouns  defined,  25.  a;  declension 
of,  32-78 ;  derivative  forms  of, 
161-163;  used  as  adjectives,  188. 
(/;  rule  of  agreement,  183. 

nox,  decl.,  54. 

-ns  as  adjective-ending,  S$.  a;  par- 
ticiples in,  with  gen.,  218.  b. 

nubes,  decl.,  52. 

nubo,  with  dat.,  227.  e. 

num,  force  of,  210.  c;  in  indirect 
questions,  id./  R. 

Number,  31  ;  agreement  in,  181  ; 
withappositives,i84.  a ;  withadjs., 
186;  with  verbs,  204.  b,  205.  c. 

Numerals,  94-97. 

Numeral  adverbs,  96. 

numquis,  105.  d,  i. 

nunc,  comp.  with  jam,  151.  ^. 

O  for  u  after  u  or  v,  7  ;  in  decl.  II., 
38.  N.  [note  3. 

o  final  in  amo  =  a  and  m,  116.  foot- 
-o  (onis),  noun-ending,  161.  c. 
O  si,  with  subj.  of  wish,  267.  b. 
ob,  use,  153;  to  express  cause,  245.  b. 
Object  cases,  177.  b. 
Object  clauses  (infin.),  330;  (subj.), 

3Z^,  332. 
Object  defined,  177;  becomes  sub- 
ject of  passive,   177.   a,  237.  a; 
accusative  of  direct  with  dat.  of 
indirect,  225. 


326 


Index. 


Objective  case  expressed  in  Latin  by 
gen.,  dat.,  ace,  or  abl,,  177.  b. 

Objective  genitive,  217. 

Oblique  cases,  31.  g\  origin  of 
names  of,  p.  145. 

obvius  (obviam),  with  dat.,  12%.  b. 

odi,  conj.,  143.  a;  with  meaning 
of  present,  279.  d^  r. 

Omission  of  consonant,  w.b. 

omnes  nos  (instead  of  nostrum) , 
216.  e. 

-6n,  Greek  ending,  decl.  II.,  43 

-on,  gen.  plur.,  decl.  II.,  43.  c. 

on-,  stem-ending,  48.  a. 

Open  syllables,  14.  d. 

opera,  with  gen.  of  agent,  246.  b. 

opinione,  with  compar.,  247.  b. 

opinor,  position  of,  345.  c, 

oportet,  146.  d\  with  ace.  of  object, 
237.  e\  imperfect  refers  to  pres- 
ent, plupf.  to  past,  311.  <r,  R. 

oportuit,  with  pres.  inf.,  288.  a. 

[ops],  decl.,  46. 

Optative,  derivation  and  comparison 
with  subjunctive,  p.  184. 

Optative  subj.  (of  wish),  267. 

opus  (and  usus),  with  abl.,  243.  e ; 
as  pred.  nom.,  id.  r.  ;  with  parti- 
ciple, 292.  b',  with  supine  in  u,  303. 

-or,  noun-ending,  163.  a. 

Oratio  Obliqua.  (See  Indirect  Dis- 
course.) 

Order  of  words,  343-346  incl. 

Ordinal  Numbers,  94. 

-orius,  adj. -ending,  164.  h, 

Orpheus,  decl.,  43. 

-OS  for  -us,  in  nom.  sing.,  decl.  II., 
38.  N. ;  as  Greek  ending,  43  ;  as 
gen.  ending  in  Greek  nouns,  decl. 
HI.,  63./ 

OS,  ossis,  decl.,  61. 

Oscan  forms  compared  wiih  Latin, 
Appendix,  p.  303. 


ossu,  ossua  (def.),  69.  foot-note, 
-osus,  -olens,  -olentus,  adj.-erd- 

ings,  164.  k. 
ovat  (defective),  144.  e. 

P,  euphonic  after  m  (sumpsi) ,  1 1 .  ^ . 

Paeon,  356.  d. 

paenitet,  146.  b\  constr.,  221.  b. 

palam,  with  abl.,  261.  ^. 

Palatal  consonants,  2 ;  stems,  decl. 
III.,  45.  <:;  gender,  66.  ^;  forms 
of  inflection,  67.  e. 

Panthus,  vocative  of,  43.  b. 

par,  decl.,  85.  b\  with  gen,,  218.  d. 

Parallel  verb-forms,  134. 

Parataxis,  foot-notes,  pp.  117,  185. 

paratus,  with  infin.,  273.  b. 

Pardoning,  verbs  of,  with  dat.,  227. 

parelion,  decl.,  43. 

Parisyllabic  nouns  of  decl.  III.,  53. 
a ;  adjectives,  84. 

parte,  locative  use,  without  prepo- 
sition, 258./  [310.  a. 

Participial  clause  implying  condition, 

Participles,  defined,  25.  ^  ;  compar- 
ison of,  89.  e  ;  number  of,  109.  a ; 
how  used,  113;  as  adjs.,  id.  e\ 
as  nouns,  id./;  parts,  in  ns,  used 
as  adjs.,  with  gen.,  218.  ^ ;  in  abl. 
absolute,  255  ;  Syntax,  289-294 ; 
meaning  and  form,  289 ;  tenses, 
290;  of  deponent  verbs,  135.  ^, 
290.  b^  d;  adjective  use,  291  ; 
predicate  use,  292 ;  with  opus, 
id.  ^;  perf.  with  habeo,  id.  c; 
present  with  facio,  id.  g;  future 
part.,  293  ;  with  past  tenses  of 
esse,  id.  c ;  gerundive,  294 ;  fu- 
ture, in  indirect  questions,  334.  a. 

Particles  defined,  27 ;  forms  and 
classification,  p.  97,  N.;  interrog- 
ative, 149.  d]  negative,  id.  f,  209; 
in  compounds,  1 70 ;   Syntax,  207-^ 


Index. 


327 


212;  use  of  interrogative  parti- 
cles, 210.  rt,  d\  conditional  parti- 
cles, 304.  a. 

Partitive  numerals,  97.  c. 

Partitive  genitive,  216. 

Parts  of  Speech,  25. 

parum,  meaning,  93.  e. 

parvi,  gen.  of  value,  215.  ^,  252.  a. 

Passive  voice,  forms  wanting  in, 
1 10.  b;  signification,  ill;  reflex- 
ive meaning,  id.  N.;  origin,  118, 
foot-note ;  completed  tenses,  how 
formed,  126.  g\  used  imperson- 
ally, 230. 

Patronymics  (-ades,  -ides,  -Sus, 
etc.),  164.  b. 

Peculiar  forms,  decl.  III.,  60. 

pelagus,  gender  of,  39.  b ;  pelage 
(plur.),  id.,  foot-note  i. 

?enalty,  gen.  of,  220;   abl.  of,  id.  b. 

penes,  following  noun,  263,  N. 

Pentameter  verse,  363. 

Penult,  defined,  19;  rules  of  quantity, 

349-354- 

per  in  composition  with  adjs.,  93.  d\ 
use,  153;  as  prefix,  170.  c\  with 
ace.  of  agent,  246.  b. 

Perceiving, verbs  of,  constr.,  272, 330. 

perendie  (loc),  74.  c. 

Perfect  tense  distinguished  from 
imperfect,  115.  ^,  c\  personal 
endings,  116.  a\  origin  of  i  and 
s,  118.  foot-note,  124.  foot-note; 
stem,  how  formed,  124;  irregular 
forms  of  conj.  I.,  130;  of  conj. 
II.,  131 ;  various,  of  conj.  III., 
132;  of  conj.  IV.,  133;  perf. 
subj.  used  in  prohibitions,  266.  b, 
269.  a'y  use  of,  279;  of  subj.  in 
sequence  of  tenses,  287.  b,  c; 
perf.  part.,  290-292. 

Period,  346;   Note  on,  p.  261. 

Periphrastic  conjugations,  113.  b,  d, 


foot-notes;  forms,  129,  T47 ;  in 
indirect  questions,  334.  a. 

Permission,  verbs  of,  331.  c. 

Person,  108.  d\  agreement,  181 ; 
of  verbs  with  antecedent,  204.  a  ; 
with  different  persons,  205.  a. 

Personal  constr.  of  passive  with  in- 
finitive, 330.  b. 

Personal  endings,  116,  117.  3,  n. 

Personal  pronouns,  98,  99 ;  Syntax, 
194;   omitted,  206.  a. 

Persuading,  verbs  of,  with  dat.,  227. 

pertaesum  est,  221.  b. 

peto  with  ab,  239,  <r,  r. 

ph  only  in  Greek  words,  12.  b; 
sound  of,  16.  N. 

Phalsecian  verse,  371.  ii. 

Pherecratic  verse,  369, 370, 37 1 . 4, 1 2. 

Phonetic  changes,  9 ;  method  of 
pronunciation,  16. 

Phorcys,  decl.,  63.  a. 

Phrase,  defined,  179. 

Phrases,  neuter,  29.  c;  adverbial, 
179 ;   limited  by  gen.,  214.  d. 

piget,  constr.  of,  221.  b. 

Place,  adverbs  of,  149.  a ;  relations 
of,  require  preposition,  229.  a, 
254;  prep,  when  omitted,  258. 
with  foot-note. 

Plants,  gender  of  names,  29.  and  b. 

Plautus,  use  of  atrior,  89.  N.;  of 
quom  with  indie,  325.  c.  r.;  pro- 
sodial  forms,  367.  a;   374.  b,  375. 

plebes,  decl.,  74.  n.  2. 

Plenty,  verbs  of,  constr.,  223,  248.  c. 

plenus,  construction,  248.  c. 

-plex,  numeral  adjectives,  97. 

pluit  (impers.),  146.  a;  used  per- 
sonally, id. 

Pluperfect,  use  of,  280. 

Plural,  wanting  in  decl.  V.,  74.  d; 
used  in  sense  different  from  sing., 
75.  a~c,  77.  c,  plur.  alone  used, 


328 


Index. 


76;  plural  accused  as  adverb,  148. 
e\  neuter  plur.  of  adjs.,  189.  b. 

Pluralia  tantum,  76. 

pluris,  gen.  of  value,  215.  r,  252.  a. 

plus,  decl.,  86,  86.  c ;  comparison, 
90  ;  without  quam,  247.  c. 

pcEnitet,  see  paenitet. 

pogma,  decl.,  47.  b. 

pono,  with  abl.,  260.  a. 

por-,  prefix,  170.  b. 

Position  in  Prosody,  347.  </;  does 
not  affect  final  vowel,  id.  <?,  r. 

posse  as  fut.  infin.,  288./. 

Possession,  dat.  of,  231. 

Possessive  adjs.,  99.  a ;  in  appos. 
with  gen.,  184.  d\  Syntax,  190, 
197;  used  for  gen.,  214.  a,  217.  a. 

possum,  conj.,  120.      [quam,  262. 

post,  adverbial  use  of,  261.  d\  with 

posterior,  91.  a. 

postquam,  in  temporal  clause,  324. 

postridie,  with  gen.,  214.  g\  with 
ace,  261.  a\  with  quam,  262. 

postulo  ab,  239.  c.  R. 

Potential  mood,  how  expressed  in 
Latin,  112.  N. 

Potential  subjunctive,  265.  R.,  31 1.  a. 

potior,  conj.,  135 ;  with  gen.,  223.  a; 
with  abl.,  249. 

potui,  with  pres.  infin.,  288.  a. 

prae,  use,  153;  quantity  of,  in  com- 
pounds, 347.  ^. 

prseceps,  decl.,  85.  b. 

Pnenomen,  80.  a  ;  abbreviations,  id. 

praeter,  use,  153. 

Predicate,  p.  118;  defined,  172; 
modified,  178;  nominative,  185; 
adjective,  186.  b^  c\  agreement 
in,  187,  a^b\  in  rel.  clause,  199; 
predicate  gen.,  214.  c\  after  in- 
fin., 272.  b\  predicate  use  of 
participles,  292;  predicate  nom., 
position  of,  343.  d.  (See  n.,  p.  145.) 


Prepositions,  assimilation  of,  11./; 
defined,  25.^;  list  of,  152;  how 
distinguii.hed  from  adverbs,  152. 
foot-note ;  idiomatic  uses  of,  153 ; 
in  composition  with  verbs,  dat. 
with,  228,  229  ;  ace.  in  compos., 
239.  b\  with  abl.  of  separation, 
243.  a ;  omitted  with  abl.  of  place, 
258./;  use  of,  260-263;  preps, 
following  the  noun,  263.  N. ;  usual 
position  of,  345.  a.  (See  N.,  p.145.) 

Present  stem,  how  formed  from  the 
root,  123. 

Present  tense,  use  of,  276;  pres. 
infin.  for  past,  288.  a ;  participle, 
290-292. 

Preteritive  verbs,  143.  N.,  279.  R. 

Price,  abl.  or  gen.,  252. 

pridie,  with  gen.,  214.^;  with  ace, 
207.  b\  constr.  as  prep,  or  adv., 
261.  a\  with  quam,  262. 

Primary  suffixes,  160. 

Primary  tenses,  285.  i,  286. 

primo,  primum,  meanings,  151.  <£ 

Principal  parts  of  verb,  122.  ^,  d. 

prior,  comparison,  91. 

prius,  with  quam,  262;  in  temporal 
clause,  327. 

Privation  expressed  by  abl.,  243. 

pro,  use,  153 ;  to  express  y^r,  236.  R. 

Proceleusmatic,  356.  e. 

procul  with  abl.,  207.  b^  261.  h. 

prohibeo,  constr.  of,  225.  d. 

Prohibitions,  266.  ^,  269.  a. 

Promising,  &c.,  verbs  of,  330.  /. 

Pronominal  roots,  159;  as  primary 
suffixes,  id. 

Pronouns  defined  and  classified,  25. 
c ;  decl.  of,  98-105  ;  personal  and 
reflexive,  98;  gen.  sing.,  how 
used,  99.  b ;  demonstrative,  100- 
102 ;  relative,  interrog.,  and  indef., 
103-105  ;  contained  in  verb-end- 


Index. 


329 


ing,  163;  Syntax,  194-203;  per- 
sonal, 194;  demonstrative,  195; 
idem,  ipse,  id.  <?,  /;  reflexive, 
196;  possessive,  197;  relative, 
p.  133.  N.,  198;  indefinite,  202, 
position  of,  343.  d.  Note  on  their 
use  and  meaning,  p.  128. 

Pronunciation,  modes  of,  16,  17. 

Proper  Names,  80. 

Proper  Nouns,  25.  a. 

propinquus,  w^ith  gen.,  21S.  c/. 

propior(propius),  comparison,  91 ; 
207.  d,  234.  e,  261.  a. 

Proportional  numerals,  97.  a. 

proprius,  with  gen.,  218.  ^. 

propter,  153. 

Prosody,  p.  261 ;  rules  and  defini- 
tions, 347-375 ;  early  peculiarities, 

375- 

prosum,  conj.,  120. 

Protasis  (see  Conditions),  304; 
loose  use  of  tenses  in  English, 
305.  R. 

Protraction  of  long  syllables,  355.  c. 

Proviso,  subj.  used  for,  266.  d;  in- 
troduced by  mode,  314;  as  re- 
sult-clause, 319.  d,  320.  d. 

-pte,  -pse  (enclitic),  99./  100.  c. 

pudet,  146.  d;  constr.,  218.  d. 

puer,  decl.,  38. 

pugnatur  (impers.),  synopsis,  145. 

Punishment,  abl.  of,  220.  d. 

Pure  and  impure  syllables,  14.  c. 

Purpose,  infin.  of,  273;  clause-  of, 
317;  w^ays  of  expressing,  318. 
Substantive  Clauses  of,  used  after 
certain  verbs,  33 1 ;  Note  on,  p. 
228. 

Quae  res  (or  id  quod),  200.  e. 
quaero,  constr.  (ex  or  de),  239.  c,  r. 
quaeso,  conj.,  144.  d;  position  of, 
345- '^• 


qualis,  105.^. 

Quality,  adjs.  of,  164.  /;  gen.  of, 
215;  abl.  of,  251. 

quam,  with  superlative,  93.  3;  ety- 
mology of,  105.  g;  with  compara- 
tives, 247.  a,  R. ;  with  ante,  post, 
262 ;  with  subj.  after  comparatives, 
320.  c. ;  followed  by  result-clause, 
332.  d ;  in  indirect  questions,  334. 
e;  in  indirect  discourse,  336.  r. 

quamlibet,  concessive,  266.  <?,  313. 

quam  ob  causam,  242.  n. 

quam  qui,  quam  ut,  with  subj,, 
320.  c. 

quamquam,  105.  d,  156.  i;  with 
indie,  313.  ^;  introducing  a  prop- 
osition =  and  yet ^  id.  f. 

quam  si,  312. 

quamvis,  156.  i\    subj.  with,  266. 

quando  (interrog.),  156.  ^;  indef., 
id.;  causal  (since),  321  ;  tempo- 
ral, 322. 

quanti,  gen.  of  value,  252.  a. 

Quantity,  gen.  of,  215.  <r;  adjs.  of, 
252.  a. 

Quantity  in  Prosody,  general  rules 
of,  18,  347 ;  nature  of,  p.  263.  n.  ; 
final  syllables,  348;  penultimate 
syllables,  349-354- 

quantum  (with  mirum) ,  in  indirect 
questions,  334.  e. 

quantus,  105.^. 

quasi,  with  primary  tenses,  312.  R. 

quasso  (intensive),  167.  b. 

-que  (enclitic),  added  to  indefinites, 
105.  e;  as  conjunction,  156.  a\ 
quantity,  348.  I. 

queo  (defective),  144.  g. 

ques,  old  nom.  plur.,  104.  d. 

Questions,  210-212;  indirect,  id,  /, 
R. ;  double  questions,  211 ;  ques- 
tion and  answer,  212 ;  mood  with 


330 


Index. 


indirect  question,  334 ;  in  indirect 
discourse,  338. 

qui  (relative),  decl.,  103 ;  qui  =  ut 
is',  with  subj.,  317. 

qui  (adverbial),  104.  c. 

quia,  156.  /;  causal,  321;  with 
verbs  of  feeling,  333.  b\  in  inter- 
mediate clauses,  341.  d. 

quicumque,  decl.,  105,  a. 

quidam,  105.  r;  meaning  of,  202, 
a\  with  ex,  216.  c. 

quidem,  151.  <?;  position  of,  345.  b. 

quilibet,  meaning  of,  105.  c.  202.  c. 

quin,  in  result-clause  (=  qui  non), 
319.  d\  with  verbs  of  hindering, 
332.^;  non  dubito  quin,  id.  r. 

Quinary  or  hemiolic  measures,  356.  d, 

quippe,  with  relative  clause,  320, 
e\  with  cum,  326. 

quis,  decl.,  104 ;  distinguished  from 
qui  in  use,  id.  a\  compounds  of 
(aliquis,  &c.),  105  ;  indef.  use  of, 
202.  a. 

quis,  dat.  or  abl.  plur.  104.  d. 

quispiam,  105.  c\  use  of,  202.  a. 

quisquam,  105.  Cy  h  ;  use,  202. 
b,c. 

quisque,  105.  e ;  use  with  superla- 
tive, 93.  c ;  in  general  assertions, 
202.  d\  in  dependent  clause,  id. 
e\  with  plural  verb,  205.  R. 

quisquis,  105.  b. 

quivis,  105.  c\  use,  202.  c. 

quo  in  final  clauses  (=  ut  co)  with 
subj.,  317.  d,  318.  a\   non  quo, 

341- R. 
quo  .  .  .  eo,  106.  c ;  to  denote  deg. 

of  difference,  250.  R. 
quoad  (purpose,  etc.),  328. 
quod  (conj.),  156./;   mood  with, 

321 ;    in    indirect   discourse,   id. 

a\  clause  with,  333;  as  ace.  of 

specification,  id.  a ;  with  verbs  of 


feeling,   id.   3;    in    intermediate 

clauses,  341.  </,  k. 
quod  sciam  (proviso),  320.  d. 
quod  si,  156.  b. 
quom,  156.^. 
quominus  (=ut  eo  minus),  with 

verbs  of  hindering,  317.  b,  319.  r, 

331.  e- 
quoniam,  156./;  causal,  321. 
quoque,  151.  a. 
quot,  indeclinable,  106.  a. 
Quotation,  forms  of,  335. 
quotus  quisque,  105.  e. 
quum,  see  cum  (conjunction). 

R,  subst.  for  s  between  vowels,  11. 
a  ;  double  r  in  noun-stems,  48.  e. 

Radical  syllables,  157.  foot-note. 

ralus,  as  pres.  part.,  290.  b. 

re-  or  red-  (prefix),  170.  b. 

reapse,  100.  c. 

Reciprocal  (^each  other),  how  ex- 
pressed, 99.  d,  196./. 

recordor,  with  ace,  219.  r. 

Reduplication,  123.  c,  124.  f;  in 
perfect  of  conj.  III.,  id. ;  lost  in 
fidi,  &c.,  id.  132./  foot-note;  of 
roots,  p.  74,  foot-note  5 ;  rule  for 
quantity,  351,  c.  [222. 

rfifert,  with  gen.  or  possessive  adj.. 

Reference,  pronouns  of,  195.  /i; 
dative  of,  235. 

Reflexive  pronouns,  98.  a,  c,  102.  N. ; 
Syntax  of,  196. 

Reflexive  verbs  (deponent  or  pas- 
sive), 118.  foot-note;  use  of  pas- 
sive, III.  N.  I;  with  object  ace, 
240.  N. 

Regular  verb,  121-136. 

Relative  adverb,  used  correlatively, 
107;  =  pronoun  with  prep.,  207. 
<i;  used  as  connective,  201.  e\ 
referring  to  locative,  id.  /. 


Index. 


331 


Relative  clauses,  180.  c^ioi.h\  as 
condition,  310;  Syntax  of,  316- 
328;  conditional,  316;  final,  317, 
318;  consecutive,  319;  causal, 
321;  temporal,  322-328 ;  relative 
clauses  in  indirect  discourse,  340. 
Note  on  origin  and  classification, 
p.  227. 

Relative  pronouns,  decl.,  103-105 ; 
forms  how  distinguished  from  in- 
terrogative and  indef.,  104.  a\ 
compounds  of,  105 ;  as  connec- 
tives, 180.  /;  Syntax,  198-201 ; 
rules  of  agreement,  198,  199 ;  use 
of  the  antecedent,  200;  special 
uses,  201.     Note  on,  p.  133. 

Relative  time  denoted  by  tenses 
of  subj.,  284,  323;  distinguished 
from  absolute  time,  323.  foot- 
note; introduced  by  cum,  325. 

reliquum  est,  with  ut,  332.  a. 

reliquus,  in  agreement,  193. 

-rem,  verb-ending,  118.  foot-note. 

repetundarum,  220.  a. 

Repeated  action  as  general  condi- 
tion, 309.  b. 

res,  decl.,  72.  [357. 

Resolution  of  syllables  in  Prosody, 

Resolving,  verbs  of,  with  infin.,  331.^. 

respublica,  decl.,  79.  d. 

restat,  with  ut,  332.  a.         [320.  d. 

Restriction  in  subj.  clause,  319.  b. 

Result,  clauses  of,  p.  230.  N. ;  with 
relatives  or  ut,  319  ;  negative 
result  with  ut  non,  id.  a\  equiv- 
alent to  proviso,  id.  b ;  with  quo- 
minus,  id.  c\  with  quin,  id.  d, 
of  characteristic,  320;  with  ex- 
pressions of  existence  and  non- 
existence, id.  a ;  with  unus  and 
solus,  id.  b\  with  comparatives, 
id.  c\  with  dignus,  &c.,  id./ 

rex,  decl.,  46. 


Rhythm,  development  of.  Note,  p. 
271 ;  nature  of,  355. 

Rhythmical  reading,  359.  r. 

Rivers,  names  of,  gender,  29.  a. 

ro-stems,  decl.  II.,  n.,  p.  16;  adj.- 
stems,  82. 

rogo,  constr.  of,  239.  <:,  r. 

Roman  method  of  pronuncii\tion,  16. 

Roman  writers.  Appendix,  p.  306. 

Romance  (or  Romanic)  languages, 
Appendix,  p.  104;  comparative 
forms,  305. 

Root,  defined,  22,  157;  of  verbs, 
117.  I.  N. ;  consciousness  of,  lost 
in  Latin,  165.  foot-note ;  used  as 
stem,  158  ;  as  word,  p.  117,  intro- 
ductory note. 

rr-,  as  stem-ending,  48.  e. 

ruri  (locative),  258.  d. 

rus,  construction  of,  258. 

S  final,  elided,  8 ;  substituted  for  d 
or  t,  1 1 .  a  ;  as  sign  of  nom.,  32.  b^ 
44,  85.  foot-note;  suppressed  in 
verb-forms,  128.  b;  in  Early  Latin, 

375-  ^• 
s  as  stem-ending,  48.  d,  60.  d\  of 

comparatives,  86.  a. 
Salamis,  decl.,  63.  a. 
salve,  defective,  144./. 
Sanskrit  forms,  see  notes,  pp.  9,  20, 

38,  67,  72,  108,  113. 
Sapphic  verse,  371.  6,  7. 
satago,  with  gen.,  223;  form,  159.  b. 
satis,    compounds    of,    with    dat., 

227.  e. 
satis  (non  satis),  93.  e\  satis  est 

(satis  habeo),  with  perf.  infin., 

288.  e. 
satur,  genitive  of,  41.  b^  82.  b. 
Saturnian  verse,  374.  d. 
Saying,  verbs  of,  constr.,  330;    in 

passive,  id.  a,  b. 


332 


Index. 


Scanning,  359.  b,  356.  n. 

scin,  contracted  form  for  scisne, 
13.^. 

scito,  scitote,  imperative  forms, 
128.  c,  269.  e. 

-SCO  (inceptive),  verbs  ending  in, 
167.  a. 

se-  or  sed-,  insepar.  prefix,  170.  b. 

se,  reflexive,  use,  98.  Cy  196. 

Second  declension,  nouns,  38-43. 

Second  conjugation,  formation,  126. 
b\  paradigm,  p.  80;  verbs  of,  131 ; 
derivation,  166.  b. 

Secondary  tenses,  285  ;  rule  for  use 
of,  286;  perf.  def.,  more  com- 
monly followed  by,  287.  a  ;  perf. 
subj.,  in  clauses  of  result  used 
after,  id.  c\  following  historical 
pres.,  id.  e\  use  in  subj.,  id./^; 
after  pres.,  by  Synesis,  id.  h. 

secundum,  prep,  use,  153. 

secundus,  derivation,  94.  foot-note. 

secutus  (as  pres.  part.),  290,  b. 

sed  compared  with  verum,  &c., 
156.  b. 

Semi-deponents,  136. 

Semi-vowels,  4. 

senati,  senatuos,  forms  of  gen.  in 
decl.  IV.,  70. 

senex,  decl.,  61 ;  comparison,  qi.  b. 

sens,  as  participle  of  esse,  119. 
foot-note. 

Sentence,  formation,  p.  118;  de- 
fined, 171  ;  simple  or  compound, 
180  (compare  Note,  p.  227). 

Separation,  dat.  of,  after  comps.  of 
ab,  de,  ex,  and  adimo,  229 ;  abl., 

243- 
Sequence  of  tenses,  285-287. 
8«quitur,  with  ut,  332.  a. 
sequoir,  conj.,  135. 
Service,  dat.  of,  233.  with  foot-note. 
Serving,  verbs  of,  with  dat.,  227. 


servus  (servos),  decl.,  38. 

sera  nocte,  193.  n. 

sestertium,  sestertius,  79.  c,  377- 
379 ;  how  written  in  cipher,  380. 

seu  (sive),  315.  c. 

-si,  perfect  ending,  118.  foot-note. 

si,  p.  214;  si  and  its  compounds, 
use,  304.  a,  N.,  315;  =  whether y 
334./;  miror  si,  333.  r. 

Sibilants,  3. 

siem  (sim),  119.  r. 

Significant  endings,  161- 164. 

Signs  of  quantity,  18.  N.B. ;  of  ac- 
cent, 19.  N. 

silentio,  without  preposition,  248.  r. 

-sim,  old  form  of  perf.  subj.,  128.  e. 

similis,  comparison,  89.  b\  with 
gen.  and  dat.,  218.  d,  234.  d.  r. 

Simois,  decl.,  64. 

simul  with  abl.,  207.  b,  261.  b. 

simul  atque  (ac),  324. 

sin,  304.  N. 

Singularia  tantuMy  75. 

siquis,  105.  d. 

sis  (for  si  vis),  13.  c. 

sitis,  decl.,  52. 

sive  .  .  .  sive,  315.  c. 

Smell,  verbs  of,  with  ace,  237.  c. 

-so,  old  form  of  fut.  perfect,  128.  e. 

sodes  (si  audes),  13.  <:,  136.  a. 

soleo,  semi-dep.,  136. 

solito,  with  comp.,  247.  b. 

solitus  as  pres.  part.,  290.  b. 

solus,  decl.,  83 ;  with  relative  clause, 
320.  b. 

Source  expressed  by  abl.,  244. 

Space,  extent  of,  expressed  by  ace, 
240.  ey  257. 

Sparing,  verbs  of,  with  dat.,  227. 

Special  verb-forms,  128. 

Specification,  gen.  of,  with  adjs., 
218.  f ;  ace.  of,  240.  c  \  abl.  of,  253. 

Spelling,  variations  of,  12. 


Index. 


333 


Spondaic  verse,  362.  a. 

Spondee,  356.  b. 

spontis,  e,  77.  3. 

Stanza  or  Strophe,  361. 

Stella,  decl.,  35. 

Stem,  defined,  21 ;  how  formed  from 
root,  23, 159;  how  found  in  nouns, 
32.  a;  o-stems,  decl.  II.,  p.  16. 
N. ;  in  decl.  III.,  mute  stems,  44 ; 
liquid  stems,  48 ;  vowel  stems,  5 1 ; 
u-stems,  decl.  IV.,  p.  30,  n.  ;  in 
tu-,  71 ;  of  verb,  117.  N.;  present, 
perfect,  and  supine,  121-125. 

Stem-building,  22.  N. 

sto,  with  abl.,  254.  b. 

Structure  of  Latin  Sentence,  p.  261. 

suadeo,  with  dat.,  227. 

sub,  152.  c\  use,  153. 

sub-,  in  composition  with  adjs.,  93, 
e,  170.  <r;  with  verbs,  170.  a. 

Subject,  p.  118;  defined,  172;  how 
expressed,  173,  174;  modified, 
178;  omitted,  206;  accusative, 
272;  in  indirect  discourse,  336; 
position  of,  343. 

Subject  clauses  (infin.),  270.  a,  330; 
(subj.),  332.  fl. 

Subjective  genitive,  214. 

Subjunctive,  tenses  wanting  in,  no. 
a\  how  used  and  translated,  112. 
b,  p.  68,  foot-note ;  tenses  how 
used,  115.  d\  classification  of 
uses,  265-268 ;  general  use,  265  ; 
hortatory  subj.,  266;  optative, 
267;  dubitative,  268;  tenses  of 
subj.,  283-287 ;  denote  relative 
time,  284;  potential  subj.,  311. 
a;  of  modesty^  id.  b\  subj.  in 
indirect  discourse,  336. 

Subordinate  clauses,  180.  b^  316- 
328;  in  indirect  discourse,  340- 
342.  [155.  D.-H. 

Subordinate    conjunctions,    154.   b. 


Substance,  gen.  of,  214.  <? ;  abl.  244. 

Substantive  clauses,  329-334;  na- 
ture and  classes  of,  329 ;  infinitive 
clauses,  330;  of  purpose,  331; 
of  result,  332;  indicative  with 
quod,  333;  indirect  questions, 
334;   classification  of,  N.,  p.  238. 

Substantive  verb  (esse),  175. 

subter,  152.  c. 

suetus,  with  infin.,  273.  b. 

Suffixes,  primary,  list  of,  160;  sig- 
nificant, 1 6 1- 1 64. 

sui,  decl.,  98.  c\  use,  196. 

sum,  conj.,  119. 

summus  {top  of),  193. 

sunt  qui,  320.  a. 

su6vetaurilia,  168.  a. 

super,  152.  c\  use  of,  153. 

superior,  comparison,  91.  a. 

Superlative  suffix,  89.  foot-note ;  in 
-rimus,  89.  a ;  of  adjs.  in  -lis,  id. 
b ;  with  maxima,  id.  d ;  of  emi- 
nence, 93.  b ;  with  quam  or  vel, 
id. ;  with  quisque,  id.  c ;  takes 
gender  of  partitive,  187.  ^;  denot- 
ing order,  succession,  193. 

Supine,  noun  of  decl.  IV.,  71.  a\ 
as  verb-form,  108 ;  use  of,  1 14.  <5 ; 
stem,  121.^;  formation,  125;  ir- 
regular forms  of,  conj.  I.,  130; 
conj.  II.,  131 ;  alUed  with  forms 
in  -tor,  162.  foot-note;  Former, 
use  of,  302 ;  Latter,  303. 

supellex,  decl.,  60.  c. 

supra,  use  of,  153. 

sus,  decl.,  60.  a,  61. 

suus,  use,  196.  [330/ 

Swearing,  verbs  of,  constr.,  237.  b, 

Syllables,  rules  for  division  of,  14; 
pure,  open,  &c,,  id.  c,  d. 

Synaeresis,  347.  c. 

Synaloepha,  359.  r,  R. 

Synecdoche,  defined,  p.  299. 


334 


Index. 


Synecdochical  accusative,  240.  c. 

Synesis,  182,  187.  d,  287.  h. 

Synopsis  of  tenses,  127;  of  imper- 
sonal verbs,  145 ;  of  constructions, 
pp.  254,  255. 

Syntax,  i  7 1  -346 ;  historical  devel- 
opment of,  Note,  p.  117. 

T  for  d  (set,  aput),  8. 

t  final,  words  in,  1 16.  foot-note  4. 

taedet,  impersonal,  146.  b\  constr., 
221.  b. 

Talent,  value  of,  382. 

tamen,  156.  k\  as  correlative,  id.  i. 

tandem,  in  questions,  210./ 

tanquam,  in  conditional  clauses, 
312;  with  primary  tenses,  id.  r. 

tanti,  gen.  of  value,  252.  a. 

tanto  following  quanto,  250.  r, 

tantum,  with  subjunctive  of  proviso, 
266.  d. 

tantum  abest  ut,  332.  d. 

-tas,  -tia,  noun-endings,  163.  e. 

Taste,  verbs  of,  with  ace.  237.  c. 

tat-,  as  stem-ending,  54.  2. 

-te  (enclitic),  99./ 

Teaching,  verbs  of  (two  ace),  239.  c. 

tcgo,  conj.,  p.  82. 

felling,  verbs  of,  constr.  272,  330. 

Temporal  clauses,  322-328. 

Temporal  numerals,  97.  b ;  conjunc- 
tions, 155.  G. 

Tendency,  adjectives  denoting,  1 64.  /. 

Tenses,  108.  c\  of  passive  voice, 
III;  of  participles,  113;  of  two 
classes,  meaning  and  use,  115; 
of  the  subj.,  id.  d\  endmgs,  118; 
formation  of,  126.  f,  g  \  Syntax, 
276-288;  classified,  p.  194.  N; 
present  tense,  276;  imperfect, 
277;  future,  278;  of  completed 
action, 2 79-28 1 ;  epistolary  tenses, 
282 ;    of    subjunctive,    283-285 ; 


sequence  of,  285-287 ;  of  the  in- 
finitive, 288;  Note  on,  p.  194. 

tenus,  constr.,  260.  e\  position, 
263.  N.,  345-  «• 

-ter  (in  alter,  &c.),  83.  foot-note ; 
adv.  endings,  84.  d-,  (-ternus), 
as  adjective-ending,  164.  e. 

Terminations  of  inflection,  meaning 
of,  20.  b ;  of  nouns,  34 ;  verbs,  1 18. 

terra  marique,  258.  d. 

Tetrameter  Iambic,  366.  a. 

The  as  correlative,  106.  c. 

Thesis  and  Arsis,  358  and  foot-note. 

Thinking,  verbs  of,  constr.  with  ace. 
and  inf.,  272,  330. 

Third  conjugation,  verbs  of,  for- 
mation, 123. /J,  126.  c;  paradigm, 
p.  82 ;  list  of  verbs  with  principal 
parts,  132;  derivation,  166.  c. 

Third  declension,  44-67 ;  mute 
stems,  44;  Hquid  stems,  48; 
vowel  stems,  5 1 ;  case  forms,  56  ; 
peculiar  forms,  60 ;  Greek  nouns, 
63;  rules  of  gender,  65,  66; 
forms  of  inflection  classified  by 
stems,  67. 

Though,  see  Although. 

Thought,  considered  as  result,  332./. 

Threatening,  verbs  of,  330.  /. 

-tia,  noun-ending,  163.  e, 

tigris,  decl.,  64. 

-tim,  adverbs  in,  56.  3,  148.  N.  «. 

Time,  absolute  and  relative,  264.  <7, 
284,  323. 

Time,  adverbs  of,  149.  b. 

Time,  duration,  240.  ^,  256;  time 
whetty  256. 

Time,  mode  of  reckoning,  p.  294. 

-timus,  adj. -ending,  164.  e, 

-tio,  noun-ending,  163.  b. 

-tio  (-sio),  -tura,  -tus  (tutis), 
noun-endings,  163.  b. 

To  {so  as  to),  319.  </,  R. 


Index. 


335 


-to,  -ito,  verbs  ending  in,  167.  (5. 

Too  .  .  .  to,  320.  c. 

-tor,  -trix,  signifying  agency,  162; 

used  as  adjs.,  88.  c,  188.  d. 
totus,   decl.,   83;    nouns  with,  in 

abl.  without  prep.,  258./ 
Towns,  gender  of  names  of,  29.  b. 
tr-,  stems  in  (pater,  &c.),  48.  c. 
trans,   compounds    of,    with   ace, 

237-  f^' 

Transitive  verbs,  177;  how  trans- 
lated, id.  c\  with  dat.,  225. 

Transposition  of  consonants,  11.  ^; 
124.  a,  N. 

tres,  decl.,  94.  c. 

tri-  as  stem-ending  of  nouns,  51.  ^, 
54.  I  ;   of  adjs.,  84.  a. 

Tribrach,  356.  a. 

Trimeter,  Iambic,  365. 

Triptotes,  77.  4. 

Trochaic  verse,  360,  367.  [369. 

Trochee,  356.  a ;   irrational,  id.,  N., 

-trum,  noun-ending,  163.  d. 

tu,  decl.,  98. 

-tudo,  -tus,  noun-endings,  163.  e. 

tuli  (tetuli),  139;  derivation,  id. 
foot-note ;  quantity  of,  351.  <^,  Ex. 

turn,  tunc,  149.  h',  correlative  with 
cum,  156.  h. 

-tura,  -tus,  noun-ending,  163.  b. 

-tus,  adjective-ending,  164./ 

-tus,  adverb-ending,  148.  N.  rj. 

U  (v)  as  semi-vowel,  4 ;  not  to  fol- 
low u  or  V,  7. 

u-stems,  of  nouns,  decl.  III.,  60.  a, 
61;  decl.  IV.,  p.  30,  N.;  of  verbs, 
123.  d,  166.  c. 

uber,  decl,  85.  b,  87.  e. 

ubi,  derivation,  148.  N.  5 ;  in  tem- 
poral clauses,  322,  324. 

ubique,  105.  e. 

-ubus,  case-ending,  decl.  IV.,  70.  d. 


ullus,  decl.,  83;  use,  105.  k,  202.  b,  c. 

-um  for  -arum,  35.  a ;  for  -orum, 
40.  e\  for  -ium,  decl.  III.,  59; 
in  gen.  plur.  of  adjs.,  87.  d. 

ulterior,  comparison,  91. 

ultra,  use  of,  153. 

-ulus,  dim.-ending,  164.0;;  vei'bal- 
ending,  id.  /. 

Umbrian  forms  compared  with 
Latin,  p.  303. 

Undertaking,  verbs  of,  with  gerun- 
dive, 294.  a. 

unquam,  use  with  neg,,  105.  h. 

unus,  decl.,  83.  a ;  meaning  of, 
94.  a,  95.  b. 

unus  qui,  with  subj.,  320.  b. 

unus  quisque,  decl.,  105.^;  use, 
202.  d. 

-uo,  verbs  in,  166.  c. 

urbs,  decl.,  54. 

Urging,  verbs  of,  with  ut,  331.  a. 

-urio  (desiderative),  167.  e. 

-urus,  fut.  part,  in,  iiT,b,  293 ;  with 
fui,  293.  Cy  308.  a;  in  indirect 
questions,  334.  a. 

Use,  adjectives  of,  constr.,  234.  b. 

usquam,  use  with  neg.,  105.  //. 

usque  with  ace,  261.  a.        [43.  b. 

-us  for  -er  in  Gr.  nouns,  decl.  II., 

usus  (need),  with  Abl.,  243.  e. 

Ut  (uti),  interrogative  use  of,  210.  e, 
R. ;  to  denote  concession,  266.  c ; 
in  final  clauses,  317;  result,  319; 
ut  ne,  id.  a\  ut  temporal,  322, 
324;  verbs  followed  by  clauses 
with  ut,  331,  332;  omission  after 
certain  verbs,  331.  /  R. ;  used 
elliptically  in  exclamations,  332.  c. 

ut,  utpote,  quippe,  with  relative 
clause,  320.  <f,  326 ;  with  cum,  326. 

uter,  decl.,  83.  a. 

uterque,  use,  202.  d\  construction 
as  partitive,  216.  d. 


336 


htdex. 


uti,  utinam,  with  subj.  of  wish, 
267.  b. 

utor,  &c.,  with  abl.,  249;  as  tran- 
sitive, id.  b\  gerundive  use  of, 
294.  c,  296.  R. 

utrum  .  .  .  an,  211  and  d. 

V  (u),  4.  7;  in  tenuis,  16.  n.  ; 
suppressed  in  perfect,  128.  a. 

valde,  93.  d.  [252.  a. 

Value,   gen.   of   indefinite,    215.   r, 

Value,  measures  of,  377-380. 

vapulo,  neutral  passive,  136.  b. 

Variable  nouns,  78,  79. 

Varieties  of  spelling,  1 2.  c. 

vas,  decl.,  60.  d. 

-ve,  vel,  156.  c. 

vel,  with  superlative,  93.  b. 

velim,  subj.  of  modesty,  311.  b. 

velim,  vellem,  with  subj.,  267.  c. 

veluti,  velutsi,  312. 

veneo  (venum  eo),  136.  b. 

Verb,  defined,  25.  </;  structure  of, 
108-116;  forms  of,  117,  118; 
esse  and  compounds,  119,  120; 
regular  verb,  121-136;  stems  of, 
121;  how  classed,  122.  a\  prin- 
cipal parts  of,  122.  b\  deponent, 
135;  semi-deponent,  136;  irregu- 
lar verbs,  137-142;  defective, 
143,  144;  impersonal,  145,  146; 
periphrastic  forms,  147;  deriva- 
tion of,  165-168;  rules  of  agree- 
ment, 204-206;  omitted,  206.  c\ 
Syntax  of,  264-342;  position  of, 

345- «• 
Verba  sentiendi  et  declarandi,  272, 

330;  passive  use  of,  272.  a\  in 

poets  and  later  writers,  id.  d. 
Verbal  nouns  with  dat.,  227.  d. 
Verbal  adjectives,  164.  /-/;  in  ax, 

with  gen.,  218.  ^. 
vereor,  conj.,  135. 


veritus,  as  pres.  part.,  290.  h. 

vero,  156.  k\  in  answers,  212.  a\ 
position  of,  345.  b. 

Verse,  359.  [verse,  360. 

Versification,    359-375 ;    forms    of 

versus,  position  of,  345.  a. 

varum  or  vero,  1 56.  b,  k, 

vescor,  with  abl.,  249. 

vesperi  (loc),  41.  b. 

vestri  as  obj.  gen.,  99.  r,  194.  b. 

vestrum  as  part,  gen.,  99.  3,  194.  b. 

veto,  with  accus.  and  infin.,  271, 
330.  2,  b. 

vetus,  decl.,  85.^ ;  comparison,  89.  a. 

-vi  in  perfect,  118.  foot-note. 

vicem,  adverbial  use  of,  240.  b. 

vicinus,  with  gen.,  218.  d. 

videor,  with  dat.,  232.  e, 

vin  (visne),  13.  c. 

vir,  decl.,  38,  41.  b. 

virgo,  decl.,  49. 

virus,  gender  of,  39. 

vis,  decl.,  61. 

viso,  167.  e. 

Vocative,  3 1 .  <r ;  form,  33.  a,  and  foot- 
note ;  in  i  of  nouns  in  ius,  decl. 
II.,  40.  Cy  d\  Syntax,  241. 

Voices,  III. 

volo  and  compounds,  conj.,  138; 
part,  of,  as  dat.  of  reference,  235. 
c ;   with  perfect  participle,  292.  d. 

voti  (damnatus),  220.  a. 

Vowels,  I. 

Vowel-changes,  lo. 

Vowel-increase,  10.  a. 

Vowel-roots  of  verbs,  1 26.  a,  /^  with 
foot-notes. 

Vowel-scale,  i.  N.;  scale  of  vowels 
and  consonants,  5. 

Vowel-stems,  decl.  III.,  51-59 ;  gen- 
der, 66.  a\  noun-forms,  67.  a; 
of  verbs,  165  and  foot-note. 

-vus,  verbal-ending,  164.  /. 


Index. 


337 


W,  not  in  Latin  alphabet,  I.  N. 
Way  by  which  (abl.),  258.  g. 
Want,  adjectives  of,  with  abl,,  243.  d. 
Weight,  measures  of,  382. 
Winds,  gender  of  names  of,  29, 
Wish,  expressed  by  subj.,  267  ;  as  a 

condition,  310.  b. 
Wishing,  verbs  of,  within  f.,  288.  d 

(cf.  271.  a);   with  final  clauses, 

317.  </,  331.  d ;  with  ace.  and  infin., 

330.  3,  331-  *• 


Without ^  with  participial,  292.  R. 
Women,  names  of,  80,  c. 
Words,  formation  of,  157-170;  ar- 
rangement of,  343-346. 

Y,  of  Greek  origin,  i.  N. 

YA,  verb-root,   117,   foot-note,   165. 

foot-note. 
ya  (primary  suffix),  160.  b. 
Year,  p.  294,  N. ;  months  of,  p.  295. 


AUTHORS  AND  WORKS  CITED. 


Caesar : 

Bell.  Civ. 
Bell.  Gall. 
Bell.  Afric. 
Cicero : 
Academica. 
pro  Archia. 
ad  Atticum. 
Brutus, 
in  Catilinam. 
pro  Clue?ttio. 
Cato  Major. 
De  Inventione. 
pro  Deiotaro. 
De  Oratore. 
De  Divinatione. 
Div.  in  CcBcil. 
ad  Familiares. 
de  Fato. 


de  Finibus. 

pro  Rose.  Amer. 

Captivi. 

pro  Flacco. 

Rull.{Leg.Agr.). 

Trinummus 

Lcelius  {de  Amicit.). 

pro  Sestio. 

Pliny. 

de  Legibus. 

Topica. 

Sallust : 

de  Leg.  Agraria. 
pro  Ligario. 

Tusc.  Qucest. 
in  Verrem. 

Catilina. 
Jugurtha. 

pro  lege  Manilla. 

Q.  Curtius. 

Seneca : 

pro  Marcello. 

Horace. 

Epist. 

pro  Murena. 

Juvenal. 
Livy. 

Tacitus : 

de  Nat.  Deorum. 

Agricola. 

de  Officiis. 

Lucretius. 

Annates. 

Orator. 

Nepos. 
Ovid: 

Histories. 

Paradoxa. 

Terence : 

Philippica. 

Metam. 

Andria. 

pro  Plancio. 

Tristia. 

Heaut. 

in  Pisonem. 

Persius. 

Virgil : 

ad  Q.  Fratrem. 

Plautus : 

yEneid. 

pro  Rabirio. 

Amphitruo. 

Eclogce. 

de  Republica. 

Asinaria. 

Georgica. 

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